Neurotherapy-of-Christian-Brain: Allah (God Allmighty)'s Word i.e. The Quran's Linguistic Challenge (Part1)

THE QURAN'S CHALLENGE:

A LITERARY & LINGUISTIC MIRACLE

“Read! In the Name of your Lord Who has created. He has created man from a leech-like clot. Read! And your Lord is the Most Generous. Who has taught (the writing) by the pen. He has taught man that which he knew not.” Surah Al-’Alaq (The Clot) 96: 1-5

These were the first verses of the Qur’an to be revealed to Prophet Muhammad (upon whom be peace) over fourteen hundred years ago. Prophet Muhammad, who was known to have been in retreat and meditation in a cave outside Makkah, had received the first revelation of a book that would have a tremendous impact on the world. Not being able to read or write or known to have composed any piece of poetry and not having any special rhetorical gifts, Prophet Muhammad had just received the beginning of a book that would deal with matters of belief, law, politics, rituals, spirituality, and economics in an entirely new literary form.

This unique literary form is part of the miraculous nature of the Qur’an, that led to the dramatic intellectual revival of desert Arabs. Thirteen years after the first revelation, it became the primary reference for a new state in Madinah, providing the new civilisation’s political, philosophical, and spiritual outlook. In this chapter, we will begin to examine why the Qur’an is impossible to imitate by reviewing how the language of the Qur’an compares to the normal literary forms of Arabic poetry and prose. Understanding the unique literary form of the Qur’an, provides an essential insight into its miraculous nature.

Arabic literary forms

Classical scholars such as al-Baqillani and al-Rummani view the Qur’an as having its own unique literary form.[1] This view is also supported by western scholarship which can be found in the writings of famous orientalists such as Arthur J. Arberry, Professor Bruce Lawrence and D.J. Stewart.[2] Every expression of the Arabic language falls into the literary forms of prose and poetry. There are other ‘sub’ forms that fall into the above categories such as kahin; a sub-form of rhymed prose. However, all literary forms can be categorised as either prose or poetry. According to Muslim and Non-Muslim scholarship, however, the Qur’an cannot be described as any one of these known forms of Arabic speech.

1. What is Arabic poetry?

Poetry is a form of literary art in which language is used for its aesthetic and evocative qualities in addition to, or in lieu of, its apparent meaning. Poetry may be written independently, as discrete poems or may occur in conjunction with other arts; as in poetic drama, hymns, lyrics or prose poetry. Poetry often uses particular forms and conventions to suggest alternative meanings in the words, or to evoke emotional or sensual responses. Devices such as assonance (repetition of vowel sounds), alliteration (repetition of consonants), onomatopoeia (is a word that imitates or suggests the source of the sound that it describes) and rhythm are sometimes used to achieve musical or incantatory effects. The use of ambiguity, symbolism, irony and other stylistic elements of poetic diction often leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations. Similarly, metaphor, simile and metonymy create a resonance between otherwise disparate images.

In Arabic, poetry (ash-shi`r ul-arabiya) is a form of metrical speech[3] with a rhyme. The rhyme (qafiyah) in Arabic poetry is achieved by every line of the poem ending upon a specific letter. The metrical aspect of Arabic poetry is due to its rhythmical pattern (arud).

Arabic poetry has sixteen rhythmical patterns called ‘al-bihar’, literally meaning ‘The Seas’ in Arabic. This term has been used to describe the rhythmical divisions as a result of the way the poem moves according to its rhythm, just like the waves in the sea.

The following is a list of the rhythmical patterns, which all Arabic poetry adheres to, or is loosely based upon; 1) at-tawil;
2) al-bassit;
3) al-wafir;
4) al-kamil;
5) ar-rajs;
6) al-khafif;
7) al-hazaj;
8) al-muttakarib;
9) al-munsarih;
10) al-muktatab;
11) al-mutadarak;
12) al-madid;
13) al-mujtath;
14) al-ramel;
15) al-khabab;
16) as-saria’.

Each one of the al-bihar has a unique rhythmical pattern. The al-bihar were first codified in the 8th century by al-Khalil ibn Ahmad and have changed little since. The al-bihar are based on the length of syllables. A literary analysis of any Arabic poem will conclude that it adheres to, or is based upon, these rhythmical patterns. This is supported by Louis Cheikho who collected pre-Islamic and post-Islamic poetry and concluded that all of the poems conformed and were based upon the al-bihar.[4] An example of Arabic poetry is the ancient Arabian poem called ‘Abu-l-‘Ata of Sind’:

“Of thee did I dream, while spears between us were quivering and sooth of our blood full drop had drunken the tawny shafts I know not, by heaven I swear and true is the word I say this pang is it love sickness or a spell from thee if it be a spell, then grant me grace of my love-longing if the other the sickness be then none is the guilt of thine.”[5]

2. What is Arabic prose?

Prose is the ordinary form of written language and every-day speech. The word ‘prose’ is derived from the Latin prosa, which literally means ‘straightforward’. Prose is therefore, adopted for the discussion of facts, topical reading, as it is often articulated in free form writing style. Thus, it may be used for books, newspapers, magazines, encyclopedias and so on. Prose lacks the formal structure of meter (the basic rhythmic structure of a verse) which is typical of poetry; instead it is composed of full sentences, usually divided into paragraphs and then smaller segments known as meta-paragraphs. Some works of prose can contain traces of metrical structure, so a blend of the two forms of literature is known as a ‘prose poem’.

In Arabic, prose can be described as non-metrical speech; which means that it does not have a consistent rhythmical pattern like poetry. Arabic prose can be divided into two categories;
1) saj’ which is rhymed prose; and
2) mursal which is straight prose or ‘normal speech’.

Saj’

In his book, Ulum al-Qur’an (An Introduction to the Sciences of the Qur’an), Von Denffer, provides the following description of saj’:

“A literary form with some emphasis on rhythm and rhyme, but distinct from poetry. Saj’ is not really as sophisticated as poetry, but has been employed by Arab poets, and is the best known of the pre-Islamic Arab prosodies. It is distinct from poetry in its lack of meter, i.e. it does not have a consistent rhythmical pattern and it shares with poetry the element of rhyme, though in many cases somewhat irregularly employed.”[6]

Although saj’ differs from poetry in that it lacks a consistent rhythmical pattern, there is some form of pattern based upon the accent in each division of saj’. Accent based rhythmical patterns are based upon stresses rather than the number of syllables. Additionally saj’ is distinct from poetry and other forms of Arabic speech due to its concentrated use of rhetorical features.[7] Rhetorical features are literary and linguistic devices intended to please or persuade, that differ from normal speech. Examples of rhetorical features include sound, rhythm, ellipsis and grammatical shift (iltifaat).[8]

In summary the definition of saj’ is that it has a,

i) Accent based (or stress-timed) rhythmical pattern
ii) End rhyme
iii) Concentrated use of rhetorical features

Mursal

Mursal can be defined as a literary form that goes on, but is continued straight throughout without any divisions, either of rhyme or of anything else. Mursal is meant as a way of expression that closely resembles everyday spoken language. Examples can be seen in speeches and prayers intended to encourage or motivate the masses.

In summary the definition of mursal is that it has,

i) No rhythmical pattern
ii) No rhyme
iii) A resemblance to straight forward speech

What is a miracle?

The word miracle is derived from the Latin word ‘miraculum’ meaning ‘something wonderful’. A miracle is commonly defined as a violation of natural law (lex naturalis); however this is an incoherent definition. This incoherence is due to our understanding of natural laws. As Bilynskyj observes “so long as natural laws are conceived of as universal inductive generalisations, the notion of violation of a natural law is incoherent.”[9]

Natural laws are inductive generalisations of patterns we observe in the universe. For clarification; induction, also known as inductive reasoning or inductive logic, is a type of reasoning which involves moving from a set of specific facts to a general conclusion. It can also be seen as a form of theory-building, in which specific facts are used to create a theory that explains relationships between the facts and allows prediction of future knowledge. Induction is employed, for example, in using specific propositions such as: all ice I have ever touched was cold. Hence all ice is cold. Problems may occur where hasty inductive generalisations proceed from a premise about a sample to a conclusion about the population. To give a very simple example; a quarter of the pupils in a class are left handed. Therefore, a quarter of the town’s population must also be left handed.

Furthermore, if the definition of a miracle is a violation of this natural law, in other words a violation of the patterns we observe in the universe, then an obvious dilemma occurs. The dilemma is that why can’t we take this perceived violation of the pattern as part of the pattern itself? Hence, a more coherent description of a miracle is not a ‘violation’ but an ‘impossibility’. William Lane Craig rejects the definition of a miracle as a “violation of a natural law” and replaces it with the coherent definition of “events which lie outside the productive capacity of nature”.[10] In summary, this means that miracles are acts of impossibilities concerning causal or logical connections.

Why is the Qur’an a Miracle?

What makes the Qur’an a miracle, is that it is impossible for a human being to compose something like it, as it lies outside the productive capacity of the nature of the Arabic language. The productive capacity of nature, concerning the Arabic language, is that any grammatically sound expression of the Arabic language will always fall with-in the known Arabic literary forms of prose and poetry. All of the possible combinations of Arabic words, letters and grammatical rules have been exhausted and yet its literary form has not been matched linguistically. The Arabs, who were known to have been Arabic linguists par excellence, failed to successfully challenge the Qur’an. Forster Fitzgerald Arbuthnot, who was a notable British Orientalist and translator, states:

“…and that though several attempts have been made to produce a work equal to it as far as elegant writing is concerned, none has as yet succeeded.”[11]

The implication of this is that there is no link between the Qur’an and the Arabic language; however this seems impossible because the Qur’an is made up of the Arabic language. On the other hand, every combination of Arabic words and letters have been used to try and imitate the Qur’an. Therefore, this leaves only one conclusion; a Divine explanation is the only coherent explanation for this impossible Arabic literary form – the Qur’an. Hence, it logically follows that if the Qur’an is a literary event that lies outside the productive capacity of the Arabic language, i.e. an impossibility, then by definition, it is a miracle.

The challenge in the Qur’an

In the following verses Allah has challenged the whole of mankind to try and produce a single chapter like the Qur’an. This challenge, which has remained unmet, captivated the minds of the Arabs at the time of revelat-ion. They rationally assessed that if an Arab cannot challenge the Qur’an and nor could a non-Arab, then the only source of the Qur’an is the Creator. The Qur’an states:

“If you are in doubt of what We have revealed to Our Messenger, then produce one chapter like it, call upon all your helpers, besides Allah, if you are truthful.” Surah al-Baqarah (The Heifer) 2: 23.

“Or do they say: “He (Prophet Muhammad, ) has forged it (this Qur’an)?” Nay! They believe not! Let them then produce a recitation like it (the Qur’an) if they are truthful.” Surah at-Toor (The Mount) 52: 33-34.

According to Qur’anic commentators such as Ibn Kathir, Suyuti and Ibn Abbas, these verses issue a challenge to produce a chapter that imitates the unique literary form of the Qur’an.[12] The tools needed to meet this challenge are the finite grammatical rules and the twenty eight letters that make-up the Arabic alphabet; these are independent and objective measures available to all. The fact that it has not been matched since it was revealed does not surprise scholars familiar with the Arabic language and that of the Qur’an.

The Qur’an was revealed over 1430 years ago and the challenge to produce something like the Qur’an has remained to this day. Throughout the centuries, thinkers, poets, theologians and literary critics have attempted to challenge the Qur’an. Some of these challengers in the past have included: Musaylamah; Ibn Al-Mukaffa; Yahya ibn Al-Hakam al-Ghazal; Sayyid ‘Ali Muhammad; Bassar ibn Burd.

Without going into an extensive analysis of why Muslim and non-Muslim scholars have agreed that those who have attempted to challenge the Qur’an have failed, the following summary should suffice. Even though the challengers have had the same set of ‘tools’, which are the twenty eight Arabic letters, finite grammatical rules and the blue print of the challenge – which is the Qur’an itself; they have failed to:

1. Replicate the Qur’an’s literary form
2. Match the unique linguistic nature of the Qur’an
3. Select and arrange words like that of the Qur’an
4. Select and arrange similar grammatical particles
5. Match the Qur’an’s superior eloquence and sound
6. Equal the frequency of rhetorical devices
7. Match the level of content and informativeness
8. Equal the Qur’an’s conciseness and flexibility

The following few lines shows a translation of Musaylamah’s attempt to challenge the Qur’an by trying to write something similar to Surah al-Feel (The Elephant, 105). Another important point to consider here is that the miracle of the Qur’an is the Arabic language itself. So when the Qur’an is translated into another language, although the general meaning becomes apparent, the actual miracle is lost.

The elephant.
What is the elephant?
And who shall tell you what the elephant is?
He has a ropy tail and a long trunk.
This is a [mere] trifle of our Lord’s creations.

It can be clearly seen, with reference to the Arabic original, that the style of Musaylamah’s speech is in the kahin style of rhymed prose. It lacks informativeness and the words and phrases that have been used can be replaced with other words that will express greater meaning as well as producing a more eloquent discourse. In stark contrast, the words of the Qur’an are such that they cannot be replaced by something else.

Hence, from a literary and stylistic point of view, this attempt failed to replicate the Qur’an. The totality of every chapter is a special characteristic of the Qur’an, each having its own unique form and its unique use of literary devices. The Qur’an’s inimitable eloquence is based upon:

i. Eloquent use of language to please and persuade;

ii. Its perfect choice of words expressions with the best of verbal forms;

iii. Accuracy of meaning;

iv. Apt selection of pronouns and rhetorical devices;

v. Interrelation between style, structure and meaning.

The list above is not exhaustive and represents just some of the reasons why it has not been possible to emulate the Qur’an to this day.

The Qur’an is impossible to match linguistically

The inability to produce anything like the Qur’an, due to its unique literary form, is the essence of the Qur’anic miracle. The argument posed by Muslim theologians and philosophers is that if, with the finite set of Arabic linguistic tools at humanity’s disposal, there is no effective challenge, then providing a naturalistic explanation for the Qur’an’s uniqueness is incoherent and doesn’t explain its inimitability. This is because a human author is only able to produce the known literary forms in the Arabic language. The development of an entirely new literary form is beyond the scope of the natural capacity of any human author, hence a Divine entity, Allah, is the only sufficient comprehensive explanation. The evidence for this is that for over a millennia, the speech and writings of the Arabs have always fallen within the known forms and expressions of the Arabic language. However, the Qur’an breaks this natural pattern due to its uniqueness. Taha Husayn, a prominent Egyptian litterateur, in a public lecture summarised how the Qur’an achieves its own unique form:

It is therefore neither verse nor prose, but it is “a Book whose verses have been perfected and expounded, from One Who is Wise, All-Aware.” We cannot therefore say it is prose, and its text itself is not verse. It has been one of a kind, and nothing like it has ever preceded or followed it.” [13]

Hence, the Qur’an is truly a unique expression of the Arabic language. Nothing has come before or after it that can match its literary form and style. This next section will discuss how the Qur’an compares to Arabic poetry and prose.

Is the Qur’an poetry?

The Qur’an cannot be simply described as poetry because the totality of each surah does not conform to any of the al-bihar and in many places does not exhibit the same regular rythmic patterns of the al-bihar. Surah al-Kawthar (A River in Paradise, 108) is a good example to show how the Qur’an is not Arabic poetry:

Inna a’tayna kal kawthar
Verily, We have granted you al-Kawthar.
Fasalli li rabbika wanhar
Therefore turn in prayer to your Lord and sacrifice.
Inna shani-aka huwal abtar
For he who hates you, he will be cut off.

The syllables of these verses do not correspond to any pattern similar to the al-bihar of Arabic poetry. In fact, there is no syllabic rhythmical pattern in this surah. Mohammad Khalifa in The Authorship of the Qur’an concludes,

“Readers familiar with Arabic poetry realize that it has long been distinguished by its wazn, bahr, arud and qafiyah (i.e. exact measures of syllabic sounds and rhymes), which have to be strictly adhered to even at the expense of grammar and a shade of meaning at times. All of this is categorically different from Qur’anic literary style.” [14]

As discussed previously Arabic prose can be defined either as rhymed (saj’) or normal speech (mursal). If we compare mursal with the Qur’an, we find that the construction of the Qur’an is not just straightforward speech. This is due to the use of rhyme, rhythm, depth of meaning and unique stylistic features abundant throughout the Qur’an. Mursal is just normal speech that does not employ any of the above features. A superficial analysis on Surah al-Kawthar will conclude that it cannot be described as normal speech.

Inna a’tayna kal kawthar
Fasalli li rabbika wanhar
Inna shani-aka huwal abtar

These verses employ an end rhyme as can be seen by the letters in bold. The repetition of the ending ‘ka’ (you) is responsible for creating the chapter’s rhythm. By highlighting just this surah’s rhyme and rhythm, clearly shows that the Qur’an is not straightforward speech.

Is the Qur’an rhymed prose (saj’)?

The Qur’an has its own unique form so it cannot be described as the normal rhymed prose that is evident in other works of Arabic literature. There are three major opinions based upon modern and classical scholarship on how the Qur’an achieves its own unique literary form of rhymed prose or saj’:

1. Unique fusion of metrical and non-metrical speech

The Qur’an achieves this unique literary form by fusing together metrical and non-metrical speech. This fusion of metrical and non-metrical composition is present throughout the whole of the Qur’an and cannot be found in any Arabic text, past or present.[15] This is summarised by the famous Arabic literary scholar Arthur J. Arberry, “For the Koran is neither prose nor poetry, but a unique fusion of both.”[16]

2. The Qur’an transcends saj’

The Qur’an shares similar features with saj’, specifically in the early Makkan surahs, but it completely transcends many aspects of what defines saj’. What makes the Qur’an unique in this context is:

a. Greater tendency to mono-rhyme

The Qur’an differs from saj’ due to its use of mono-rhyme, meaning that its rhyming scheme conforms to a few rhymes rather than a selection of many rhymes. According to one analysis, just over half of the Qur’an ends with the same letter.[17] This particular use of rhyme, in a text the size of the Qur’an, has not been replicated in any Arabic text. Devin J. Stewart states:

“Qur’anic saj’ has a much greater tendency to mono-rhyme than does later saj’. A small number of rhymes…are predominant in the Qur’an whereas rhyme in later saj’ shows greater variation.”[18]

b. Does not conform to a particular style

The general description of saj’ is that it has an end rhyme. However, the Qur’an does not conform to a constant or consistent rhyme, which reflects the work of ar-Rummani[19] who states that the Qur’an’s use of language is semantically orientated and does not conform to a particular style. Semantically orientated means the use of language is driven by meaning, in other words the message that is being portrayed, in contrast to the language of the poets when they used words and phrases primarily for sound and rhythm rather than any coherent meaning.

This is also reflected by Devin J. Stewart’s analysis, he states, “The Qur’an allows inexact rhymes which are not found in later saj’”[20]

c. Greater range of saj’ phrases

The divisions of saj’ or single phrases of saj’ are called saj’aat.[21] The Qur’an differs from normal saj’ as it has a greater range of short and long saj’aat. Devin J. Stewart states, “Both in the Qur’an and in later saj’ we see that shorter saj’ is much more common, but the range in the Qur’an is greater.”[22]

d. Higher frequency of rhetorical features

The Qur’an is a ‘sea of rhetoric’. The Qur’an exhibits an unparalleled frequency of rhetorical features, surpassing any other Arabic text, classical or modern.[23] The use of rhetoric in the Qur’an stands out from any other type of discourse.[24] The following examples show that the Qur’an employs a wider range and frequency of rhetorical features than any other rhymed prose; past or present [please refer to the original Arabic to understand the examples giveb below].

i. Alliteration.

This is a literary or rhetorical stylistic device that consists of repeating the same consonant sound within several words in close succession. For example repetition of kum in the following verse:

“He will direct you to do righteous good deeds and will forgive you your sins. And whosoever obeys Allah and His Messenger, he has indeed achieved a great achievement.” Surah al-Ahzaab (The Confederates) 33: 71.

Another example of alliteration occurs in Surah al-Mursalaat when the letter meem is repeated in quick succession:

“Did We not create you from a despised water? Surah al-Mursalaat (Those sent forth) 77: 20.

ii. Analogy

This can be a spoken or textual comparison between two words (or sets of words) to highlight some form of semantic similarity between them. For example:

“And cushions set in rows. And rich carpets spread out.” Surah al-Ghaashiyah (The Overwhelming) 88: 15-16.

“Therefore, treat not the orphan with oppression. And repulse not the beggar.” Surah ad-Duhaa (The Forenoon) 93: 9-10.

iii. Antiphrasis

This is a figure of speech that is used to mean the opposite of its usual sense, especially ironically. For example:

“Then pour over his head the torment of boiling water. Taste you (this)! Verily, you were (pretending to be) the mighty, the generous!” Surah ad-Dukhaan (The Smoke) 44: 48-49.

iv. Antithesis

This is a counter-proposition and denotes a direct contrast to the original proposition. For example:

“Those who disbelieve, theirs will be a severe torment; and those who believe and do righteous good deeds, theirs will be forgiveness and a great reward.” Surah Faatir (The Originator of Creation) 35: 7.

v. Asyndeton

This term is used for a stylistic scheme in which conjunctions are deliberately omitted from a series of related clauses. For example in the following verses the subject matter switches within the same verse without any linkage:

“Allah is He Who raised the heavens without any pillars that you can see. Then, He rose above the Throne. He has subjected the sun and the moon, each running (its course) for a term appointed. He manages and regulates all affairs; He explains the Ayat (proofs, evidences, verses, lessons, signs, revelations, etc.) in detail, that you may believe with certainty in the Meeting with your Lord.” Surah ar-Ra’d (The Thunder) 13: 2.

vi. Assonance

A refrain of vowel sounds to create internal rhyming within phrases or sentences, For example the words eeyaa bahum and hesaa bahum in the following two verses:

“Verily, to Us will be their return; Then verily, for Us will be their reckoning.” Surah al-Ghaashiyah (The Overwhelming) 88: 25-26.

vii. Cadence

Cadence is the rythmic rise or fall of the voice when a text is read aloud. This powerful feature is one of the most beautiful attractions of the Qur’an and is present throughout. It is a major phonetic and cohesive element which makes the Qur’an impossible to imitate. No other text has done this before, especially in such frequency and in combination with assonance and the many other phonetic devices such as assimilation, nasalisation, etc.

viii. Chiasmus

In rhetoric, chiasmus is the figure of speech in which two or more clauses are related to each other through a reversal of structures in order to make a larger point, for example:

“You make the night to enter into the day, and You make the day to enter into the night, You bring the living out of the dead and, You bring the dead out of the living. And You give wealth and sustenance to whom You will, without limit.” Surah aal-Imraan (The Family of Imraan) 3: 27.

ix. Epizeuxis

In linguistics, an epizeuxis is the repetition of words in immediate succession, for vehemence or emphasis. For example in Surah ash-Sharh we read:

“Verily, along with every hardship is relief, verily, along with every hardship is relief.” Surah ash-Sharh (The Opening Forth) 94: 5-6.

x. Equivoque

This is the use of a term with more than one meaning or sense. For example use of the word ‘mountains’ in the following verse:

“See you not that Allah drives the clouds gently, then joins them together, then makes them into a heap of layers, and you see the rain comes forth from between them; and He sends down from the sky hail (like) mountains, and strikes therewith whom He wills, and averts it from whom He wills. The vivid flash of its (clouds) lightning nearly blinds the sight.” Surah an-Noor (The Light) 24: 43.

xi. Homonymy

This is a group of words, that share the same spelling and the same pronunciation but can have a different meaning. For example, in the following verse the word makara can have both good and bad meaning. In the context of the verse we see the evil plotting and planning of those who wished to kill Prophet Jesus (peace be upon him) as opposed to Allah’s plan to protect Prophet Jesus (peace be upon him).

“And they (disbelievers) plotted (to kill Jesus), and Allah planned too. And Allah is the Best of those who plan.” Surah aal-Imraan (The Family of Imraan) 3: 54.

xii. Hyperbole

A term for when statements that are deliberately exaggerated to underline a point. For example:

“Verily, those who deny Our verses and treat them with arrogance, for them the gates of heaven will not be opened, and they will not enter Paradise until the camel goes through the eye of the needle (which is impossible). Thus do We recompense the Mujrimun (criminals, polytheists, sinners).”Surah al-A’raaf (The Heights) 7: 40.

“When they came upon you from above you and from below you, and when the eyes grew wild and the hearts reached to the throats, and you were harbouring doubts about Allah.” Surah al-Ahzaab (The Confederates) 33: 10.

xiii. Isocolon

A figure of speech in which parallelism is reinforced. For example:

“Let the rich man spend according to his means; and the man whose resources are restricted, let him spend according to what Allah has given him. Allah puts no burden on any person beyond what He has given him. Allah will grant after hardship, ease. And many a town (population) revolted against the Command of its Lord and His Messengers; and We called it to a severe account, and We shall punish it with a horrible torment (in Hell in the Hereafter). So it tasted the evil result of its affair (disbelief), and the consequence of its affair (disbelief) was loss (destruction in this life and an eternal punishment in the Hereafter). Allah has prepared for them a severe torment. So fear Allah and keep your duty to Him, O men of understanding, who have believed! Allah has indeed sent down to you a Reminder (this Qur’an).” Surah at-Talaaq (The Divorce) 65: 7-10.

xiv. Metaphor

A metaphor is a term that concisely compares two things, saying that one is like the other. For example:

“And We shall turn to whatever deeds they (disbelievers, polytheists, sinners) did, and We shall make such deeds as scattered floating particles of dust.” Surah al-Furqaan (The Criterion) 25: 23.

“And your Lord has decreed that you worship none but Him. And that you be dutiful to your parents. If one of them or both of them attain old age in your life, say not to them a word of disrespect, nor shout at them but address them in terms of honour. And lower to them the wing of submission and humility through mercy, and say: “My Lord! Bestow on them Your Mercy as they did bring me up when I was young.” Surah al-Israa (The Journey by Night) 17: 23-24.

xv. Metonymy

This device is used in rhetoric in which a thing or concept is not called by its own name, but by the name of something intimately associated with that thing or concept. So for example in the following verse when describing the story of Prophet Noah (peace be upon him), the Arabic word for ark or ship is not in the verse but is implied by Allah’s mention of planks and nails:

“And We carried him on a (ship) made of planks and nails” Surah al-Qamar (The Moon) 54: 13.

xvi. Palindrome

This is a word or phrase that can be read both forwards and backwards, for example ‘race car’ or ‘radar’. The Prophet Muhammad was unlettered, so for him to construct palindromes in the Qur’an such as these would have been a very lengthy task of trial and error, especially when we consider that the Qur’an was revealed as an oral transmission and Prophet Muhammad would merely recite the revelation as soon as he had received it without editing or revising. Allah says in verse 3 of Surah al-Muddaththir (The One Enveloped, 74):

Translated into English this verse means;

“And magnify your Lord (Allah)!”

The example above of an Arabic palindrome is all the more remarkable because it maintains the Qur’an’s consistent unique style, and retains a coherent meaning which is often lost in normal Arabic poetry. When we take a closer look, we see the verse is composed of a palindrome. The word rabbaka (Lord) written backwards forms kabbara meaning ‘magnify’.

xvii. Parenthesis

This is an explanatory or qualifying word, clause or sentence inserted into a passage with which it doesn’t necessarily have any grammatical connection. For example:

“But those who believed, and worked righteousness – We tax not any person beyond his scope – such are the dwellers of Paradise. They will abide therein forever.” Surah al-A’raaf (The Heights) 7: 42.

xviii. Polyptoton

This stylistic scheme occurs when words are derived from the same root and repeated (e.g. ‘strong’ and ‘strength’). In the Qur’an for example Allah says sabab-nal maa a’ sabbaa and shaqaqq-nal arda shaqqaa:

“We pour forth water in abundance. And We split the earth in clefts.” Surah ‘Abasa (He Frowned) 80: 25-26.

xix. Rhetorical questions

This type of question is a figure of speech in the form of a question posed for its persuasive effect without the expectation of a reply (for example, Why me?). Rhetorical questions encourage the listener to think about what the (often obvious) answer to the question must be. When a speaker states, “How much longer must our people endure this injustice?”, no formal answer is expected. Rather, it is a device used by the speaker to assert or deny something. In the Qur’an, Allah uses rhetorical questions in many places, for example:

“Is there any reward for good other than good?” Surah ar-Rahmaan (The Most Gracious) 55: 60.

“Then he turned to their alihah (gods) and said: “Will you not eat (of the offering before you)?” Surah as-Saaffaat (Those Ranged in Ranks) 37: 91.

xx. Synecdoche

This is closely related to metonymy and is a figure of speech that denotes a part of something but is used to refer to the whole thing. For example ‘a pair of hands’ referring to a worker. In the following Qur’anic verse there are many different aspects to consider. Firstly, a synecdoche when the word raqaba meaning ‘neck’ is used to refer to the whole ie. a slave. Then the charitable act itself being likened to a steep path, in other words a difficult course of action.

The psycholinguistics behind the verse alone opens up for consideration various aspects of human psychology, behaviour and comprehension in relation to language. Lastly, the use of the word raqaba achieves the effect of maintaining the rhyme created by the previous key word, ‘aqaba (the steep path).

“And what will make you know the path that is steep? (It is) freeing a neck.” Surah al-Balad (The City) 90: 12-13.

3. Qur’an bound stylistic variations

Stylistic variation is the use of different features of language in a myriad of ways. Continuing with the comparison between the unique literary form of the Qur’an and Arabic rhymed prose or saj’, we find that the Qur’an uses literary and linguistic devices in such a way that has not been used before with unparalleled communicative effect.

The use of stylistic variation or stylistic differences, includes, but is not limited to:

1. Semantically driven assonance and rhyme
2. Grammatical shifts (iltifaat, in Arabic)
3. Interrelation between sound, structure and meaning
4. Choice of words
5. Unique linguistic genre
6. Word order

To illustrate these points further take the following two Qur’anic verses which are structurally identical but stylistically distinct:

“These are the limits set by God, so do not approach them”[25]

“These are the limits set by God, so do not transgress them”[26]

The first verb ‘approach’ occurs in the context of following a very serious prohibition in the same verse:

“…but do not associate with your wives while you are in spiritual retreat in the mosques.”[27]

The second verb ‘transgress’ of the second verse entails flexibility signified by the conjunctions in the previous phrases ‘either’ and ‘or’:

“A divorce is only permissible twice: after that, the parties should either hold together on equitable terms, or separate with kindness.”[28]

In the context of stylistic variation the above example can provide empirical evidence for the view that the Qur’an uses words and phrases specifically to provide an accurate and intended meaning.

How are stylistic variations unique to the Qur’an?

The Qur’an achieves its unique literary form by transcending the use of language that is common to saj’. S. M. Hajjaji-Jarrah in her article “The Enchantment of Reading: Sound, Meaning, and Expression in Surat Al-Adiyat”, which discusses how the Qur’an achieves its uniqueness due to stylistic differences, states: “…Qur’anic ‘Arabiyya brings forth a dazzling assembly of word meaning and sound defying the conventions of both the Arabian saj’ and the literary rules of classical Arabic literature”.[29]

The following examples provide linguistic and literary evidence for the Qur’an’s stylistic distinction.

Example 1: Word order, sound and meaning

The following is an example of how the Qur’an combines words, sounds, meaning and order to achieve its communicative goal, the result of which is sublime rhetoric[30], unsurpassed eloquence and a unique literary form. Let us examine the text from verses 3 and 4 of Surah aal-Imraan (The Family of Imraan, 3):

“…And He sent down the Torah and the Gospel, Aforetime, as a guidance to mankind. And He sent down the Criterion…”

Working with the English transliteration the verse reads;

“wa-anzala at-tawrata waal-injeela min qablu hudan lilnnasi wa-anzala al-furqana”

An alternative order of the words is possible:

“wa-anzala at-tawrata waal-injeela waal-furqana min qablu hudan lilnnas”

However, when compared to the original this alternative arrangement has some flaws. Firstly, the alternative arrangement lacks rhythm, compared to the original Qur’anic structure, and it is phonetically inferior. Secondly, this arrangement has led to a disturbance in the meaning. This is due to the fact that the second use of the key word anzala (revealed) has been taken out and the final word al-furqana (the Criterion), whose position has a crucial semantic value, has been placed in the middle of the sentence.

In the original Qur’anic sentence, the repetition of the word anzala and the placement of al-furqana are essential devices employed to enhance the communicative, psycholinguistic and rhetorical effect. The repetition of the word anzala is to confirm the revelation of the Criterion and that it is indeed a Divine scripture while the placement of the word al-furqana at the end of the sentence is to confirm that the Criterion is the last and final scripture.[31] Abd al-Qadir Ahmad ‘Ata refers to examples like these as ‘the chemical composition of the Qur’an which indicate the delicate and balanced stylistic variation in the Qur’an.[32]

Example 2: Grammatical Shift (iltifaat)

Professor Abdel Haleem in his article ‘Grammatical Shift for Rhetorical Purposes: Iltifaat and related features in the Qur’an[33], highlighted another inimitable feature of the Qur’an, the extensive use of grammatical shifts. This feature is an effective rhetorical device that enhances the texts literary expression and achieves the communicative goal;[34] it is an accepted, well researched part of Arabic rhetoric. One can find references in the books of balagha (Arabic Rhetoric) by al-Athir, Suyuti and Zarkashi.[35]

These grammatical shifts include changes in person, change in number, change in addressee, change in tense, change in case marker, using a noun in place of a pronoun and many other changes.[36] An example of this complex rhetorical feature is exhibited in the following verse. It changes to talking about Allah, in the third person, to Allah Himself speaking in the first person plural of majesty:

“There is no good in most of their secret talk, only in commanding charity, or good, or reconciliation between people. To anyone who does these things, seeking to please God, We shall give a rich reward.” Surah an-Nisaa (The Women, 4): 114.

Surah al-Kawthar provides another good example of the use of grammatical shift.

“Verily, We have granted you al-Kawthar. Therefore turn in prayer to your Lord and sacrifice. For he who hates you, he will be cut off.” Surah al-Kawthar (A River in Paradise) 108: 1-3.

In this surah, there is a change from the first person plural ‘We’ in the first line to the second person ‘…your Lord’. This change is not an abrupt shift; it is calculated and highlights the intimate relationship between Allah and Prophet Muhammad . The use of ‘We’ as described above is used to emphasize the Majesty, Power and the Ability of Allah, whereas ‘Your Lord’ is used to indicate and emphasise intimacy, closeness and love; this is an apt use as the preceding concepts are about prayer, sacrifice and worship ‘So to your Lord pray and sacrifice’. Furthermore, the purpose of this chapter is also to console Prophet Muhammad; using intimate language enhances the psycholinguistic effect. A final shift occurs from the second person to the third person singular.

These shifts contribute to the dynamic style of the Qur’an and are obvious stylistic features and accepted rhetorical practice. The Qur’an uses this feature in such a way that conforms to the theme of the text (semantically driven) while enhancing the impact of the message it conveys. It is not surprising that Neal Robinson in his book ‘Discovering the Qur’an: A Contemporary Approach to a Veiled Text’ concludes that the grammatical shifts used in the Qur’an, “…are a very effective rhetorical device.”[37]

The Qur’an is the only form of Arabic prose to have used this rhetorical device in an extensive and complex manner. Professor Abdel Haleem states, “…it employs this feature far more extensively and in more variations than does Arabic poetry. It is, therefore, natural to find…no one seems to quote references in prose other than from the Qur’an.”[38]

Hence, the Qur’an is stylistically distinct from any known form of Arabic speech. It uses linguistic and literary devices in such a way that have not been used before.

Example 3: Qur’anic precision

A further example of Qur’anic precision is found in a verse that mentions two of the attributes of Allah; al-Ghafoor (The Forgiving) and ar-Raheem (The Merciful). In the Qur’an we find that these two names of Allah are mentioned together more than seventy times, with the word al-Ghafoor always preceding ar-Raheem. However, in Surah Saba verse 2 (see below), we find that ar-Raheem is mentioned before al-Ghafoor. So the question arises as to why this might be.

“In the Name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful. All praise and thanks are to Allah, to Whom belongs all that is in the heavens and all that is in the earth. His is all praise and thanks in the Hereafter, and He is the All-Wise, the Well-Acquainted (with all things). He knows that which goes into the earth and that which comes forth from it, and that which descends from the heaven and that which ascends to it. And He is the Most Merciful, the Oft-Forgiving.” Surah Saba (Sheba) 34: 1-2.

If we examine the content and structure of the whole verse in detail we see that the two attributes of Allah ‘Mercy and Forgiveness’ alternate as shown in the representation below. Allah begins verse two with the word “He knows” which has a direct connection with why ar-Raheem is mentioned first in this case.

If we carefully analyse this verse Allah says that “He knows that which goes into the earth…” If we consider the types of things that go into the earth such as seeds that are buried in the ground, worms, insects, drops of rain and the fact that human beings will also go into the earth when they die. Once in the ground we will need to rely on the Mercy of Allah. Then Allah says, “and that which comes forth from it”. Vegetation, springs and rivers gushing forth are examples of all the types of things that come out of the earth. Similarly human beings will too come out from the earth when they are resurrected from their graves. At that time we will need to rely on Allah’s attribute of al-Ghafoor (forgiveness).

The verse continues and Allah says “and that which descends from the heaven”. Consider for a moment what comes from the skies such as drops of rain, Divine commandments in the form of revelations, Allah’s graces, favours and provisions. We see that all of these things are a mercy from Allah. Rain is a mercy, revelation is a mercy and provisions are a mercy. The verse then ends with “and that which ascends to it. And He is the Most Merciful, the Oft-Forgiving”. Our deeds, supplications, and souls depart this word and all ascend to heaven and what is required in these instances from Allah is his forgiveness. Thus, each part of the verse connects with these two names and the verse has to end on ar-raheemul ghafoor in contrast to all other occurrences, in order to maintain the correct sequence.

This verse provides another excellent example of the precision and balance present throughout the Qur’an, coupled with a level of awareness of what is being said and the implications behind the words that would have been impossible for Prophet Muhammad to produce by himself and remain consistent over a period of twenty three years.

Example 4: Maintenance of rhythm

An example of textual precision and maintenance of rhythm in the Qur’an is found within the story of Prophet Moses (Musa, peace be upon him). Prophet Moses is mentioned together with his brother Prophet Aaron (Harun, peace be upon him) in numerous places in the Qur’an. So for example in Surah A’raaf (The Heights), verses 121 and 122 we read:

“They said: “We believe in the Lord of the Alamîn (mankind, jinn and all that exists). The Lord of Moses and Aaron.”

Note how all of the verses leading up to the mention of the Prophets Moses and Aaron end with the letter noon. Usually when we read the story about their meeting with the Pharaoh and his magicians as in the above verse, Prophet Moses is always mentioned before Prophet Aaron. However, there is one exception. In Surah TaaHaa (20) verse 70 Allah says:

“So, the magicians fell down prostrate. They said: “We believe in the Lord of Aaron and Moses.”

The order of the names is different in this verse so that the rhythm of the recitation is maintained. The previous Qur’anic text shows that the verses preceding verse 70 all end on the letter alif. Hence, ending verse 70 with the name Musa, helps to maintain this style and rhythm.

Example 5: Singular and plural words

One of the many fascinating aspects of the Qur’an is that it never ceases to astound those who study it. As each layer of knowledge is unravelled further levels of understanding and comprehension are revealed. The fact that Allah the Creator has a very fine and subtle knowledge of human nature in terms of how we think and feel is highlighted throughout the Qur’an. For example, whenever Allah uses the word sama’ (listen) in the Qur’an it is usually in its singular rather than the plural form as in Surah al-Baqarah (The Heifer, 2) verse 7 we read;

“Allah has set a seal on their hearts and on their hearing, (i.e. they are closed from accepting Allah’s Guidance), and on their eyes there is a covering. Theirs will be a great torment.”

The highlighted text above shows that although the words qoloobihim (hearts) and absaarihim (eyes) are in their plural forms the word sami’him (hearing) is singular. This is due to the fact that if we listen to speech, our hearts and minds all react on an individual basis, whereby we will translate and understand the speech according to our own personal understanding and comprehension of what was said. This type of subtlety is lost when the Qur’an is translated into another language, so the true linguistic miracle and magnificence of the Qur’an can only be fully appreciated from the original Arabic.

Another example of the use of singular and plural words occurs in Surah ash-Shu’araa (The Poets, 26). The following verses reveal how the people of the Prophets Noah and Lot (peace be upon them) and the people of Ad, Thamud and al-Aikah all denied the Messengers of Allah.

“The people of Noah denied the Messengers.” Surah ash-Shu’araa (The Poets) 26: 105.

“(The people of) Ad denied the Messengers” Surah ash-Shu’araa (The Poets) 26: 123.

“(The people of) Thamud denied the Messengers.” Surah ash-Shu’araa (The Poets) 26: 141.

“The people of Lot denied the Messengers.” Surah ash-Shu’araa (The Poets) 26: 160.

“The dwellers of Al-Aikah denied the Messengers.” Surah ash-Shu’araa (The Poets) 26: 176.

In all of these verses the apparent meaning is clear that all of these people denied their Messengers. However the choice of the plural word al-mursaleen (Messengers) rather than singular ar-rasool is more appropriate here. This is due to the fact that even if you deny one of Allah’s Messengers it is as if you have denied them all because they all came with the same message, namely, Islam. As in the following verse where Allah says;

“Verily, those who disbelieve in Allah and His messengers and wish to make distinction between Allah and His messengers (by believing in Allah and disbelieving in His messengers) saying, “We believe in some but reject others,” and wish to adopt a way in between. They are in truth disbelievers. And We have prepared for the disbelievers a humiliating torment. And those who believe in Allah and His messengers and make no distinction between any of them (messengers), We shall give them their rewards; and Allah is Ever Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful.” Surah an-Nisaa (The Women) 4: 150-152.

Example 6: Qur’anic imagery and word choice

There are many examples in the Qur’an of a particular word being used rather than another word with a similar meaning that phonetically enhances the description in the text during its recitation. For instance, Allah says in Surah al-Hajj (The Pilgrimage, 22) verse 31:

“Hunafa’ Lillah (i.e. worshipping none but Allah), not associating partners (in worship) to Him; and whoever assigns partners to Allah, it is as if he had fallen from the sky, and the birds had snatched him, or the wind had thrown him to a far off place.”

Here (hunafa’ lillah) means, sincerely submitting to Him alone, shunning falsehood and seeking the truth. Allah then says “not associating partners unto Him”. Then Allah gives a likeness of the idolator in his misguidance and being doomed and being far away from true guidance, and says: whoever assigns partners to Allah, it is as if he had fallen from the sky, and the birds had snatched him, or the wind had thrown him to a far off place.”

This whole passage conjures up a vivid scene of a person falling down from the sky from a great height about to be violently broken into pieces or he may be swept away by the wind or thrown into a bottomless depth. What is striking is the rapid and violent movement, with scenes happening in quick succession and then disappearing completely.

The interesting point to note here is that the verse ends with the word saheeq, rather than an alternative word, baeed. Both of these have a very similar meaning: remote, distant and faraway. However, the word saheeq is used because it ends in the letter qaf, which is a ‘heavy’ letter in the Arabic alphabet as opposed to the ‘lighter’ daal at the end of the word baeed. In this case the verse ends on a much harder note, which strengthens and underlines the stark events being portrayed in the verse.

The verse represents a very accurate picture and apt description of one who associates partners with Allah. He falls from the sublime height of faith to land in utter destruction. Finishing the verse with the letter qaf shows the severity of the matter, and that when the person is thrown to the faraway place the landing is not soft, rather he is smashed on the ground with a crack. This type of example highlights further the unique inter-relationship between the precise choice of Qur’anic words, their resonance and how this effects the meaning of a particular verse.

Example 7: The challenge

Surah al-Kawthar is the shortest surah in the Qur’an with only three short verses and like all of the other chapters in the Qur’an, has an unmatched selection of words, pronouns, word order and meaning. Moreover, anyone attempting to take up the challenge of the Qur’an only needs to produce something comparable to it. By briefly analysing this chapter’s first verse it provides an insight into how this matchless and eloquent discourse is achieved.

i. Emphasis and choice of pronoun

Verily, We have granted you al-Kawthar.
Inna a’tayna kal kawthar
Therefore turn in prayer to your Lord and sacrifice.
Fasalli li rabbika wanhar
For he who hates you, he will be cut off.
Inna shani-aka huwal abtar

The use of the words (Verily, We) at the start of al-Kawthar is emphatic; also the plural is used to indicate power, certainty, ability, greater quantity or sometimes to stress the status and greatness (li-ta’zim al-mutakallim aw ihtimaman bidhikr rabbika wa ta’ziman). This is an apt choice of pronoun as its persuasive force can not be matched by any other pronoun. The effect is “The Creator, who has power to do anything, has indeed given you….”

ii. Word choice

The term a’tayn has been used instead of aataaina’ because of a subtle difference. The difference as defined by Ibn Manzoor in his Lisan al-Arab is that the Qur’anic choice indicates ‘to hand over with one’s own hand’ whereas the non Qur’anic selection does not provide this meaning.

This choice of word is apt as it strengthens the sentence emphasizing the surety of giving, ability, greatness, power and intimacy (to console and strengthen Prophet Muhammad ). The verb has also been used in the past tense which indicates that it has already happened and makes it definitive. This further accentuates the meaning of surety, power and greatness. This also expresses certainty of a promise; in this case Prophet Muhammad will have al-Kawthar, or abundance.

The root stem for the word al-Kawthar are the letters kaf, tha and ra (kathara). This signifies plentiful, multitude, overflowing, rich, unstinting and unending. Other derivations of this root include:

1. katha-ratun: Multitude

2. katheerun: Much, many, numerous

3. ak’tharu: More numerous (emphasis)

4. kath-thara: To multiply

5. takathur: Act of multiplying

6. is-thak-thara: To wish for much

Al-Qurtubi states that the Arabs used ‘kawthar’ to denote anything which is great in quantity or value. This word can not be replaced with another, as its meaning can not be matched equally with any other Arabic word.

iii. Word arrangement

The placement of al-Kawthar is an attribute; plentiful and abundance. However, this word has been placed at the end of the verse with no word after to be attributed to it, as al-Qurtubi points out, this indicates that Prophet Muhammad has been given an abundance of everything. Islamic scholars state that if Allah had bestowed one thing in great multitude then that would have been mentioned. How-ever, due to giving Prophet Muhammad an abundance of everything, nothing is mentioned to indicate everything or many things. Also, within the science of eloquence and rhetoric, mentioning all things would be superfluous and not a good use of language.

iv. Multiple meaning

The word al-Kawthar has been given multiple meanings by the scholars. These meanings include:

1. A river of Paradise from which rivers flow.

2. The fountain on the Day of Judgement from which Prophet Muhammad will quench the thirst of his people.

3. His prophethood.

4. The Qur’an.

5. The way of life called Islam.

6. The multitude of his companions; no other prophet had as many companions as Prophet Muhammad.

7. Elevated status. No one is more researched, more mentioned, more praised and more loved than Prophet Muhammad.

8. It is a multitude of goodness.

Just by briefly looking at Surah al-Kawthar’s first line it can been seen that the words, word order and pronoun have been carefully selected to enhance the meaning. Any attempt to change the words or word order will truly cease to sound like the Qur’an, and the powerful meaning would be lost. As we have discussed, the Qur’an is unique in that it does not follow the normal pattern of Arabic poetry and prose. The flow of the Qur’an is not interrupted by the repeated detail contained in many of its verses. In fact, part of the beauty of the Qur’an can be attributed to its precise detail and accuracy.

Hence, the overview presented here shows how the Qur’an transcends all forms of Arabic rhymed prose (saj’). In fact theologians and Arab linguists hold that the Qur’an does not contain just ordinary saj’, and is in fact unique to all types of saj’. Their reasoning is that in the Qur’an, the use of language is semantically orientated and its literary structure is distinct, whereas in saj’, conformity to style is a primary objective.

No human being has ever composed a book that discusses such diverse topics in a language with so much rhythm, beauty and style. Further examples of the Qur’an’s unique literary form are too many and varied to list and are beyond the scope of this book, but can be found in a multitude of other works on this subject.

In conclusion, the Qur’an is a literary and linguistic mira-cle. It has challenged those who doubt its Divine author-ship and history has shown that it is indeed a miracle as there can be no natural explanation to comprehensively explain its unmatched unique expression. As tangible signs, Qur’anic verses are expressive of an inexhaustible truth. They signify meanings layered within meanings, light upon light and miracle after miracle. Examples of other miraculous aspects of the Qur’an, such as the scientific accuracy where it deals with many natural phenomena, can be found in “The Islam Guide, pp. 191-264”.[39]

References

1. ‘Abd al-Jabbar, I’jaz al-Qur’an, Cairo, 1960, p. 224; Ali Ibn Isa al-Rummani, Thalath Rasa’il Ijaz al-Qur’an, Ed. M. Khalaf Allah & M. Sallam, Cairo, 1956, p. 97; Hamd Ibn Muhammad al-Khatibi, al-Bayan fi I’jaz al-Qur’an, Ed. Dr ‘Abd al-Alim, Muslim University, Aligarh, India, 1953, p. 36; Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Tayyib Baqillani, al-I’jaz al-Qur’an. Ed. A. Saqr, Dar al-Ma’arif, Eqypt, pp. 86-89; A’isha ‘Abd ar-Rahman, at-Tafsir al-Bayani li-Qur’an al-Karim, 3rd ed, Cairo, 1968.

2. Arthur J. Arberry, The Koran, Oxford University Press, 1998. p. x; Bruce Lawrence, Journal of Qur’anic Studies, Vol VII, Issue I, 2005. Approximating Saj’ in English Renditions of the Qur’an: A Close Reading of Suran 93 (al-Duha) and the basmala p. 64; Devin J. Stewart, Saj’ in the Qur’an: Prosody and Structure, in The Koran: Critical Concepts in Islamic Studies, Edited by Colin Turner, Vol. II.

3. Metrical speech is a form of speech that employs a strict rhythmical pattern, that is, it follows a type of poetic metre.

4. Louis Cheikho, Shu’ara’ ‘al-Nasraniyah, 1890-1891, Beirut.

5. Sir Charles J. Lyall, Translations of Ancient Arabian Poetry, p. xlv-lii and William Wright, 1955 (1898).

6. Von Denffer, ‘Ulum al-Qur’an: An Introduction to the Sciences of the Qur’an, The Islamic Foundation, 2003 (Revised Ed. 1994), p. 75.

7. Devin J. Stewart, Rhymed Prose. Encyclopaedia of the Qur’an. General Editor: Jane Dammen McAuliffe, Georgetown University, Washington DC. Brill, 2008.

8. Angelika Neuwrith, Rhetoric and the Qur’an. Encyclopaedia of the Qur’an. General Editor: Jane Dammen McAuliffe, Georgetown University, Washington DC. Brill, 2008.

9. Stephen S. Bilynskyj, God, Nature, and the Concept of Miracle, Ph.D. Diss.: Notre Dame, 1982, p. 10-42.

10. Dr. William Lane Craig, The Problem of Miracles: A Histor-ical and Philosophical Perspective. Available online.

11. F. Arbuthnot, The Construction of the Bible and the Koran, London, 1885, p 5.

12. See: Tafsir Ibn Kathir; Tafsir al-Qurtubi; Tafsir al-Jalalayn and Ma’riful Qur’an by.

13. The influential Egyptian Litterateur born in 1889 and died in 1973. Lecture entitled, Prose in the second and third centuries after the Hijrah, delivered at the Geographical Society in Cairo 1930, Dar al Ma-arif.

14. Mohammad Khalifa, The Authorship of the Qur’an: Critical Concepts in Islamic Studies. Edited by Colin Turner, Vol. I, p.129.

15. Mitwalli al-Sharawi, The Miracles of the Qur’an, Dar ul Taqwa, p. 31.

16. Arthur J. Arberry, The Koran, Oxford University Press, 1998. p. x.

17. Dr. Adel M. A. Abbas, Anne P. Fretwell, Science Miracles, No Sticks or Snakes, Beltsville, Maryland, USA: Amana Publications: 2000.

18. Devin J. Stewart, Saj’ in the Qur’an: Prosody and Structure, p.102.

19. Ali Ibn Isa al-Rummani, Thalath Rasa’il Ijaz al-Qur’an, Ed. M. Khalaf Allah & M. Sallam, Cairo, 1956, p. 97-98.

20. Devin J. Stewart, Saj’ in the Qur’an: Prosody and Structure, p.102.

21. ibid, p.84.

22. ibid, p. 90.

23. See: H. Abdul-Raof, Exploring the Qur’an, Al-Maktoum Institute Academic Press, 2003, p. 265-398; H. Abdul-Raof, Qur’an Translation: Discourse, Texture and Exegesis, Curzon Press, 2000, p 95-137; F. Esack, Qur’anic Hermeneutics: Problems and Prospects, The Muslim World, 1993, Vol. 83, No. 2. p. 126 -128.

24. ibid.

25. Surah al-Baqarah (The Heifer) 2: 187.

26. Surah al-Baqarah (The Heifer) 2: 229.

27. Surah al-Baqarah (The Heifer) 2: 187.

28. Surah al-Baqarah (The Heifer) 2: 229. For further detail see: Hussein Abdul-Raof, Qur’anic Stylistics: A Linguistic Analysis, p 91-92.

29. S. M. Hajjaji-Jarrah, The Enchantment of Reading: Sound, Meaning, and Expression in Surat Al-Adiyat, Curzon Press, 2000, p. 229.

30. For more information on the rhetorical features in the Qur’anic discourse see: H. Abdul-Raof, Exploring the Qur’an, al-Maktoum Institute Academic Press, 2003, p. 265-398; H. Abdul-Raof, Qur’an Translation: Discourse, Texture and Exegesis, Curzon Press, 2000, p 95-137; F. Esack, Qur’anic Hermeneutics: Problems and Prospects, The Muslim World, 1993, Vol. 83, No. 2. p. 126 -128; Muhuddin Darwish, Irab-ul-Quran; Ibn Kathir, Tafseer al-Qur’an, Darusalaam, Riyadh, 2001; Dr Wahba Zuhayli, al-Tafseer al-Muneer; Al-Qurtubi, Tafsir al-Qurtubi Arabic; al-Jami li-Ahkam al-Qur’an; Tafsir al-Jalalayn, Classical Commentary of the Qur’an (Arabic & english); Imam at-Tabari, Tafsir al-Tabari: Jami` al Bayan fi Ta’Wil al Qur’an; Ahmad al-Hashimi, Jawaher al-Balaghah;
‘Abd al-Fatah al- Qadhi, al-Wafi fi Sharh al-Shatibiyyah fi al-Qira’at al-Sab’, karangan.

31. Hussein Abdul-Raof, The Linguistic Architecture of the Qur’an, Journal of Qur’anic Studies, Vol. II, Issue II, 2000, p. 39.

32. ‘Abd al-Qadir Ahmad ‘Ata, ‘Wujuh i’jaz al-Qur’an, in Mahmud ibn Hamza al-Karmani (ed.), Asrar al-tikrar fi’l-Qur’an, Cairo: Dar al-I’tisam, 1977, p. 243-63.

33. Muhammed Abdel Haleem, Understanding the Qur’an: Themes & Styles, I. B.Tauris Publishers, 1999, p. 184-210.

34. H. Abdul-Raof, Exploring the Qur’an, Al-Maktoum Institute Academic Press, 2003 and H. Abdul-Raof, Qur’an Translation: Discourse, Texture and Exegesis, Curzon Press, 2000.

35. Muhammed Abdel Haleem, Understanding the Qur’an: Themes & Styles, 1999, p. 184-210.

36. ibid.

37. Neal Robinson, Discovering the Qur’an: A Contemporary Approach to a Veiled Text, Georgetown University Press, 2004.

38. Muhammed Abdel Haleem, Understanding the Qur’an: Themes & Styles, 1999, p. 184-210.

39. Rashida Begum Alam, The Islam Guide, An Insight into the Faith, History and Civilisation, Exhibition Islam, 2007, pp. 191-264.

Courtesy: http://www.hamzatzortzis.com/essays-articles/exploring-the-quran/the-inimitable-quran/ (Honorable Sheikh Hamza Andreas Tzortzis)

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THREE LINES THAT CHANGED THE WORLD:

THE INIMITABILITY OF THE SHORTEST

CHAPTER IN THE QURAN

إِنَّا أَعْطَيْنَاكَ الْكَوْثَرَ
فَصَلِّ لِرَبِّكَ وَانْحَرْ
إِنَّ شَانِئَكَ هُوَ الْأَبْتَرُ

Inna aAtayna kal kawthar
Fasalli li rabbika wanhar
Inna shani-aka huwal abtar

Verily We have given to you the abundance
So pray to your Lord and sacrifice
Indeed your enemy is the one who is cut off

Chapter al-Kawthar (The Abundance) is the smallest chapter in the Qur’an consisting of only three lines. From a linguistic, literary, theological, rational and ideological point of view this chapter has the utmost significance. Being the smallest chapter in the Qur’an it is often cited by those who are involved in some form of polemic. This is due to the famous challenge of the Qur’an. The Qur’an states:

“If you (mankind) are in doubt concerning what We revealed to Our servant, than bring a chapter like it….” Qur’an 2:23

Muslim and non-Muslim exegetes have commented that these verses, and other verses similar to it, are an open challenge to humanity to try and match the literary and linguistic feature/nature of the divine text. It is not surprising that this chapter is often quoted and its significance highlighted by those propagating the Islamic way of life.

This chapter is used as a proof of the Islamic creed. If someone can meet the challenge the text cannot be from the Divine. However if the challenge can not be met, even though there are a finite set of literary and linguistic ‘tools’ at their disposal; then the question of authorship has great implications.

The Qur’an was revealed approximately 1400 years ago and for this amount of time the challenge has remained. This however does not mean that no one has attempted to match the literary and linguistic style/feature/nature of the text. Throughout the centuries thinkers, poets, theologians and literary critics have attempted to challenge the Qur’an. Some of these challengers include Musaylamah, Ibn Al-Mukaffa‘, Abu’l-’Ala Al-Marri, Yahya b. Al-Hakam al-Ghazal, Sayyid ‘Ali Muhammad, Ibn al-Rawandi, Bassar bin Burd, Sahib Ibn ‘Abbad, Abu’l – ‘Atahiya and the contemporary Christian Missionaries who developed the ‘True Furqan’.

Without going into an analysis of why Muslim and non-Muslim scholars have agreed that those who have attempted to challenge the Qur’an have failed, the summary below should suffice:

Even though the challengers have had the same set of ‘tools’, which are the 29 letters, finite grammatical rules and the blue print of the challenge – which is the Qur’an itself; they have failed to:

1. Replicate the Qur’ans literary form
2. Match the unique linguistic genre of the Qur’an
3. Select and arrange words like that of the Qur’an.
4. Select and arrange particles like that of the Qur’an.
5. Match the Qur’ans phonetic superiority.
6. Equal the frequency of rhetorical devices
7. Match the level of informativity
8. Equal the Qur’ans conciseness and flexibility

For example if we take Musaylamah’s attempt to challenge the Qur’an,

The elephant.
What is the elephant?
And who shall tell you what is the elephant?
He has a ropy tail and a long trunk.
This is a [mere] trifle of our Lord’s creations.

it can be clearly seen, with reference to the Arabic original, that the style of his speech is in the kahin style of rhymed prose. It lacks informativity and the words and phrases that have been used can be replaced with words that will express greater meaning and produce more eloquent discourse. In other words from a literary and stylistics point of view, this challenge fails.

In light of the above what makes the Qur’an, or in this case, what makes the shortest chapter in the Qur’an inimitable? To start, below is a summary of chapter al-Kawthar’s literary and linguistic features:

1. Unique Literary Form
2. Unique Linguistic Genre
3. Abundance of rhetorical devices/features:
- Emphasis
- Multiple Meaning
- Iltifaat – Grammatical shift
- Word order and Arrangement
- Ellipsis
- Conceptual Relatedness (Intertextuality)
- Intensification
- Choice of words & Particles
- Phonetics
- Semantically Orientated Repetition
- Intimacy
- Exaggeration
- Rebuke and contempt
- Conciseness
- Flexibility
- Prophesy/Factual

Unique Literary Form

This chapter like all the other chapters in the Qur’an can only be described as a unique literary form. This means that this chapter can not be explained as any of the known literary forms of the Arabic language.

The Arabic language can be categorised into ‘Prose’ and ‘Poetry’. Arabic Prose being further grouped into rhymed prose (saj’) and continuous speech (mursal). Arabic poetry differs from Arabic Prose as it ends with a rhyme and is distinguished by its metrical rhythmical patterns which are called the ‘al-Bihar.’ There are 16 al-Bihar which all Arabic poetry, pre and post Islamic, are based upon.

This chapter is unique as its internal rhythm can not be described as any of the al-Bihar and its end rhyme and literary bonds differ from any Arabic prose. Therefore its literary form is unlike any known literary forms of the Arabic language.

Unique Linguistic Genre

Like all other chapters in the Qur’an, chapter al-Kawthar marry’s together rhetorical and cohesive elements in every sentence. This is a unique use of the Arabic language as Arabic texts mostly employ cohesive elements in every sentence. Below is an analysis of this chapter in light of the above:

This chapter can be split into two sentences:

[1] Verily We have given to you the abundance so pray to your Lord and sacrifice

[2] Indeed your enemy is the one who is cut off

In the first sentence the rhetorical aspects are (these will be explained later):

Emphasis/Intensification
Choice of Word & Particle
Rhythm and Sound
Iltifaat (grammatical shift)
Multiple meaning
Conceptual Relatedness (intertextuality)

The cohesive device used in this sentence is the ‘fa’ particle (which is causative) and links the structure ‘Verily We have given to you the abundance’ with the structure ‘pray to your Lord and sacrifice’.

In the second sentence the rhetorical aspects are:

Choice of Word and Particle
Rhythm and Sound
Semantically Orientated Repetition
Confinement/exclusivity
Rebuke and Contempt
Prophesy/Factual
Word order and Arrangement

The cohesive device used in this sentence is what is known as ‘Zero’ cohesion. This is a form of cohesion where a cohesive particle like waw (and) or fa’ (so) is not used. The cohesive element is easily understood via the readers’ linguistic intuition. The whole structure relates to the preceding sentence, if it was not apparent then a cohesive particle would have to be used. The way the Qur’an achieves cohesion in this sentence can also be seen as a rhetorical feature, not using a cohesive particle in this case creates conciseness in language; any needless or repetitive lexical items are removed. If the relationship between one sentence and another can be understood without the use of additional words or particles then they should not be used, as this achieves brevity and eloquent discourse. This is similar to the chapter al-Ihklas (Sincerity).

Abundance of Rhetorical Devices/Features

This chapter like all the other chapters in the Qur’an has an abundance of rhetorical features and devices. According to Abu Musa, Abdul Raof and others the Qur’an has a greater use of rhetorical devices and features than any other text; past or present. Below are some examples of how chapter al-Kawthar achieves this ‘sea of rhetoric’. What is meant by rhetoric here is what is known in the Arabic tradition as ‘balagha’, this encompasses the use of language to please and persuade; expression in the best verbal forms, eloquence and interrelation between style, structure and meaning. The list below is not exhaustive but sheds some light into this chapter’s unique use of language.

Emphasis & Choice of Pronoun

إِنَّا

[Verily, We] This structure is emphatic (harf al-tawkid); also the plural is used to indicate power, certainty, ability, greater quantity or sometimes to stress the status and greatness (li-ta’zim al-mutakallim aw ihtimaman bi-dhikr rabbika wa ta’ziman). This is an apt choice of pronoun as its persuasive force can not be matched by any other pronoun. The effect is “The creator, who has power to do anything has indeed given you….”

Word Choice

أَعْطَيْن

[A’Tayn] This term as been used instead of ‘Aataaina’ because of a subtle difference. The difference as defined by Ibn Manzoor in his Lisan al-‘Arab differs conceptually. The Qur’anic choice indicates ‘to hand over with one’s own hand’ whereas the non Qur’anic selection does not provide this meaning. This choice of word is apt as it strengthens the sentence emphasizing the surety of giving, ability, greatness, power and intimacy (to console and strengthen the Prophet).

According to Naishapuri this term also indicates the extra notion of ownership with it.

The verb has also been used in the past tense which indicates that is has already happened and makes it definitive. This further accentuates the meaning of surety, power and greatness. This also expresses certainty of a promise, in this case the Prophet will have al-Kawthar.

Word Choice

الْكَوْثَرَ

[al-Kawthar] The root stem for this word are the letters kaaf, tha and ra (=kathara). This signifies plentiful, multitude, overflowing, rich, unstinting and unending. Other derivations of this root include:

Katha-ratun: Multitude
Katheerun: Much, many, numerous
Ak’tharu: More numerous (emphasis)
Kath-thara: To multiply
Takathur: Act of multiplying
Is-thak-thara: To wish for much

Al-Qurtubi states that the Arabs used ‘Kawthar’ to denote anything which is great in quantity or value. This word can not be replaced with another, as its meaning can not be matched equally with any other Arabic word. Ibn Abbas mentioned that the al-Kawthar includes all types of good. (Ibn Abbas Tanwir al-Miqbas: this is of doubtful origin. However this is also the opinion of Sa‘id Ibn Jubayr, ‘Ikramah, Qatadah and Mujahid.)

Word Arrangement

The placement of al-Kawthar is an attribute; plentiful/abundance. However this word has been placed at the end of the verse with no word after to be attributed to it, as al-Qurtubi points out, this indicates that the Prophet has been given an abundance of everything. The Scholars state that if God had bestowed one thing in great multitude then that would have been mentioned, however due to giving the Prophet an abundance of everything nothing is mentioned to indicate everything or many things. Also within the science of eloquence and rhetoric mentioning all the things would be superfluous and not a good use of language.

Multiple Meaning

The word al-Kawthar has been given multiple meanings by the scholars. These meanings include:

1. That river of paradise from which rivers flow.
2. The fountain on the Day of Judgement from which the Prophet will quench the thirst of his people.
3. His prophethood.
4. The Qur’an, no other divine book is as comprehensive as the Qur’an.
5. The way of life called Islam.
6. The multitude of his companions, no other prophet had that many companions
7. Elevated status. No one is more researched, more mentioned and more praised than the prophet Muhammad.
8. It is multitude of goodness.

Grammatical Shift: Iltifaat

إِنَّا …ِرَبِّكَ ْ

[…to your Lord]. Iltifaat is a unique rhetorical and stylistic device employed by the Qur’an. The Qur’an is the only text to have the highest frequency of grammatical shifts and related rhetorical features. In this Surah, there is a change from the first person plural [We in innaa] to the second person […your Lord]. This change is not an abrupt shift; it is calculated and highlights the intimate relationship between God and the Prophet. The use of ‘We’ as described above is used to emphasize the majesty, power and ability of God whereas ‘Your Lord’ is used to indicate and emphasize intimacy, closeness and love; this is an apt use as the preceding concepts are about prayer, sacrifice and worship. [So to your Lord pray and sacrifice]. Furthermore, the purpose of this chapter is also to console the Prophet, using intimate language enhances the psycholinguistic effect.

Conceptual Relatedness (intertextuality)

فَصَلِّ لِرَبِّكَ وَانْحَرْ

[So to your Lord pray and sacrifice]

The ‘fa’ (so) particle is sababi (causative) this indicates a recommendation to the Prophet to be thankful for the abundance he has been given. This conceptually relates to tawhid (oneness of God). The Oneness of God is the central theme in the Qur’an which permeates every chapter. The Arabs at the time of revelation would worship, pray and sacrifice to other ‘deities’ rather than God. Therefore this statement is not only a logical and rational concept i.e. to be thankful as a result of being the beneficiary of abundant good, rather it is to show the difference to the polytheists who would offer worship and sacrifice to idols. This relates to a major theme in the Qur’an, the oneness of God.

There are other verses that related to this particular verse, these include:

Say: “Verily, my Salah, my sacrifice, my living, and my dying are for Allah, the Lord of all that exists. He has no partner. And of this I have been commanded, and I am the first of the Muslims.” Qur’an 6:162-163

And do not eat from what Allah’s Name has not been pronounced over, indeed that is Fisq (transgression). Qur’an 6:121

It can be clearly seen that chapter al-Kawthar conceptually relates to other verses and chapters within the Qur’an. This feature from a linguistics point of view is called thematic intertextuality.

Word Choice

وَانْحَرْ

[Wanhar] The word ‘wanhar’ is from the root na, ha and ra (= nahara) which means to sacrifice an animal by cutting or piercing the jugular vein. The word ‘wanhar’ also has the meaning of standing facing Qibla for Salah (prayer). It also means raising hands while reciting Takbir (God is the Greatest).

This word is the most apt word for the meaning of sacrifice as it has multi layered meanings which are most appropriate for the ideas and concepts that are trying to be delivered in this structure. Surely it is only out of God’s Greatness that al-Kawthar is given to the Prophet and it should be received with thanks and sacrifice, which are manifested in Islam via sacrificing animals, prayer and recitation of Gods names (dhikr).

If anyone was to scan the Arabic language for a word that has such expression they would not be able to find one.

Emphasis and Choice of Particle

إِنَّ

[Inna] ‘Indeed’ is used to emphasize and accentuate that it is the enemies of the Prophet that are cut off. The effect is ‘you enemies are certainly the ones you are cut off’.

Semantically Orientated Repetition & Rhythm

إِنَّا أَعْطَيْنَاكَ الْكَوْثَرَ
فَصَلِّ لِرَبِّكَ وَانْحَرْ
إِنَّ شَانِئَكَ هُوَ الْأَبْتَرُ

The repetition of the second person (ka = ‘you’ x 3) is singling out/focusing/making exclusive the Prophet as the target of the speaker. The emphasis (iqrar) is a stylistic move to fortify and strengthen the Prophet. The consistent use of the second person establishes continuity in the verse and generates rhythm. Moreover, there is a juxtaposition between the iltifaat of the speaker (al-mutakallim = God) with the fixity/repetition of ka in the second person (mukhatab = Prophet).

Rebuke and Contempt

إِنَّ شَانِئَكَ هُوَ الاٌّبْتَرُ

[It is your enemy that is cut off]

The use of the word ‘abtar’ (cut off) is most suitable as it was a word used by the enemies of the Prophet against him. This structure indicates that in reality the enemies of the Prophet are the ones who are cut off i.e. have acquired great loss. This is accentuated by the preceding two verses which are an intense, emphatic and exaggerated use of language to show that all good has been given to the Prophet. The contrast between the persuasive preceding structures and the use of the word ‘abtar’ gives the word more power and intensity.

Word Arrangement

إِنَّ شَانِئَكَ هُوَ الاٌّبْتَرُ

[abtar] This chapter uses the insult the enemies of the Prophet used to enhance the communicative effect. This word in the Arabic tradition means `Leave him, for indeed he is a man who is cut off having no descendants. So when he dies he will not be remembered.’

This return of insult is not merely done as a form of ‘tit for tat’ rather it is eloquently arranged as the last word used in the chapter to stress the meaning. The effect is, that it is they who are really cut off as the word ‘abtar’ is placed right at the end of the chapter to allude to this fact. There are no words after ‘abtar’ just like no remembrance and no offspring to continue someone’s lineage (Note: This is a linguistic indication and not a fact).

Choice of Particle: Confinement/Exclusivity

هُوَ الاٌّبْتَرُ

[…that is cut off]. The alif lam (a and l) after the ‘huwa’ denotes confinement and exclusivity (designates a specific person or thing i.e. the enemies of the Prophet). For the context of this chapter, the definite article (al-) may designate either definition (li ’l-ta’rif) i.e. refer to a specific person/thing or it may designate ‘familiarity’ (li ’l-‘ahd). The effect here is that the enemies specifically and not the Prophet who are really cut off. Such minutiae changes the power of the structure, which is a great use of language.

Rhythm and Sound

The Qur’an has been described as an “inimitable symphony” whose rhythm moves men to tears and ecstasy. The Qur’an not only selects the most apt words and phrases, but also achieves a unique sound within a unique literary form. This chapter has the following verse end rhyme:

Kawthar
…nhar
…tar

What is noticeable about the rhyme in this chapter is that the end rhyme of the last two verses resonate the sound of the word ‘al-kawthar’, what is meant here is as if the sound of the word ‘al-kawthar’ is extended to support the overall theme that the Prophet has really been given an abundance. It is as though the word ‘al-kawthar’ has been exaggerated and phonetically elongated to further highlight its meaning and enhance the overall persuasive power of the structure. Please also see ‘Semantically Orientated Repetition & Rhythm’ above.

Prophesy/Factual

An interesting observation of the chapter is that it also is factual and accurate. At the time when this chapter was revealed the Prophet was in one of the lowest points in his life. His enemies were the ones who seemed to have prosperity and power. However, the reality soon changed. The Prophet turned out to be the most successful Prophet both as a man delivering a message and as a statesman. His enemies eventually lost their power.

However the Qur’an used the word ‘abtar’ here, this describes the Prophet gaining power and success but it should also indicate something more specific for it to be appreciated as a factual description and a form of prophesy.

There are major opinions of the reason for this revelation. The first opinion is that Al-`As bin Wa’il would say, whenever the Prophet would be mentioned (in his presence), `Leave him, for indeed he is a man who is cut off having no descendants. So when he dies he will not be remembered.’ Therefore this chapter was revealed to console the Prophet.

The other opinion is that Abu Lahab, another leading member of the Quraish, exlaimed `Muhammad has been cut off (i.e., from progeny) tonight.’ when the Prophet’s son passed away.

What makes this chapter a prophesy and factual is the events that took place after this revelation.

With regards to Abu Lahab he died of a form of plague and was not buried by his sons until one the leading tribe leaders noticed how his body was rotting. His sons eventual placed the remains of the body on a wall and threw stones on it. Abu Lahab had lost power, honour and dignity.

‘As bin Wa’il faced similar humiliation. His sons had converted to Islam thus becoming his enemies, as he was an active enemy of Islam. Furthermore his sons did not take any inheritance from him. So in reality his lineage was broken.

This is Prophetic and factual.

Please read the exegesis and the historical background of this chapter to find out more details.

Conclusion

This chapter is truly unique and inimitable.

This chapter has less than 15 words yet briefly analysing this chapter more than 15 rhetorical devices and related features have been found. These features are not just mediocre attempts to please and persuade, rather they are sublime features that if removed or altered will distort the impact and communicative effect of the text.

Not one feature or any words can be changed or improved upon.

It doesn’t stop there. In addition to the above this chapter is structured within its own literary form and linguistic genre.

How can a human being create a unique literary form and linguistic genre, select the most apt words placed in the most perfect arrangement, produce a unique rhythm and semantically orientated sounds, provide factual prophetic information in concise eloquent expression with an abundance of rhetorical devices, in less than 15 words?

It was no wonder that those best placed to challenge the Qur’an failed.

This article intends to provoke further questions and sufficiently stimulate the reader to research further, particularly the question of authorship of the Qur’an. At the heart of that question lies only a limited set of possible answers. The Qur’an can only have come from an Arab, a non-Arab, the Prophet – if you believe he had a mastery of Arabic better than the Arabs of his time – or, as Muslims suggest, the Creator, which only counts as a possible source if you believe in its existence (that is of course a subject unto itself but an important pre-requisite).

From the above evidence the Qur’an is acknowledged to be written with the utmost beauty and purity of Language. It is incontestably the standard of the Arabic tongue, inimitable by any human pen, and because it still exists today, it insists on as a permanent miracle sufficient to convince the world of its divine origin. If the Qur’an was written by Muhammad, why were not Arab scholars and linguists able to rival the Qur’an?

Courtesy: http://www.hamzatzortzis.com/essays-articles/exploring-the-quran/three-lines-the-changed-the-world-the-inimitability-of-the-shortest-chapter-in-the-qur%E2%80%99an/ (Honorable Sheikh Hamza Andreas Tzortzis)

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The Quran's Unique Literary Form

1. Introduction

“Read in the Name of your Lord”[1]. These were the first few words of the Qur’an revealed to the Prophet Muhammad over fourteen hundred years ago. Muhammad, who was known to have been in retreat and meditation in a cave outside Mecca[2], had received the first few words of a book that would have a tremendous impact on the world of Arabic literature[3]. Not being known to have composed any piece of poetry and not having any special rhetorical gifts[4], Muhammad had just received the beginning of a book that would deal with matters of belief, law, politics, ritual, spirituality, and economics[5] in an ‘entirely new literary form’. The popular historian Karen Armstrong states,

“It is as though Muhammad had created an entirely new literary form…Without this experience of the Koran, it is extremely unlikely that Islam would have taken root.”[6]

This unique literary form was the cause of the dramatic intellectual revival of desert Arabs, and after thirteen years of the first revelation, it became the only reference for a new state in Medina.[7] This new form of speech, the Qur’an, became the sole source of the new civilisation’s political, philosophical, and spiritual outlook.[8]

The Qur’an’s Challenge

The unique literary form forms the backdrop to the doctrine of I’jaz al-Quran, the inimitability of the Qur’an, which lies at the heart of the Qur’an’s claim to being of divine origin. The Qur’an states,

“If you are in doubt of what We have revealed to Our messenger, then produce one chapter like it. Call upon all your helpers, besides Allah, if you are truthful”[9]

And

“Or do they say he fabricated the message? Nay, they have no faith. Let them produce a recital like it, if they speak the truth.”[10]

According Qur’anic Exegetes[11] these verses issue a challenge to produce a chapter (surah) that imitates the Qur’an’s unique literary form. The tools needed to meet this challenge are the finite grammatical rules and the twenty eight letters that make-up the Arabic language; these are independent and objective measures available to all. The fact that it has not been matched since it emerged to this day does not surprise most scholars familiar with the Arabic language and that of the Qur’an.[12]

The inability of any person to produce anything like the Qur’an, due to its unique literary form, is the essence of the Qur’anic miracle. A miracle is defined as “events which lie outside the productive capacity of nature”.[13] The argument posed by Muslim Theologians and Philosophers is that if, with the finite set of Arabic linguistic tools at humanity’s disposal, there is no effective challenge; then providing a naturalistic explanation for the Qur’an’s uniqueness is incoherent and doesn’t explain its inimitability. This is because the natural capacity of the text producer, or author, is able to produce the known literary forms in the Arabic language. The development of an entirely unique literary form is beyond the scope of the productive nature any author, hence a supernatural entity, God, is the only sufficient comprehensive explanation.[14]

It is the purpose of this article to explain how the Qur’an achieves this unique literary form thereby explaining the miracle of its inimitability.

2. Arabic Literary Forms

According to Muslim and Non-Muslim scholarship, the Qur’an cannot be described as any of the known forms of Arabic speech; namely poetry and prose.[15] Taha Husayn,[16] a prominent Egyptian Litterateur, during the course of a public lecture summarised how the Qur’an achieves this unique form,

“But you know that the Qur’an is not prose and that it is not verse either. It is rather Qur’an, and it cannot be called by any other name but this. It is not verse, and that is clear; for it does not bind itself to the bonds of verse. And it is not prose, for it is bound by bonds peculiar to itself, not found elsewhere; some of the binds are related to the endings of its verses and some to that musical sound which is all its own. It is therefore neither verse nor prose, but it is “a Book whose verses have been perfected the expounded, from One Who is Wise, All-Aware.” We cannot therefore say its prose, and its text itself is not verse. It has been one of a kind, and nothing like it has ever preceded or followed it.”[17]

Every expression of the Arabic language falls into the literary forms of Prose and Poetry. There are other ‘sub’ forms that fall into the above categories such as Kahin; a sub-form of rhymed prose. However all literary forms can be categorised as prose or poetry.

What is Arabic Poetry?

Arabic poetry (ash-shi`ru ‘l-`arabiy) is a form of metrical speech with a rhyme.18 The rhyme (qafiyah) in Arabic poetry is achieved by every line of the poem ending upon a specific letter.[19] The metrical aspect of Arabic poetry is due to its rhythmical pattern (arud). Arabic poetry has sixteen rhythmical patterns called ‘al-Bihar’, literally meaning ‘The Seas’ in Arabic. This term has been used to describe the rhythmical divisions as a result of the way the poem moves according to its rhythm, just like the waves in the sea.

The following is a list of the rhythmical patterns, which all of Arabic poetry adhere too or are loosely based upon;

1. at-Tawîl

2. al-Bassit

3. al-Wafir

4. al-Kamil

5. ar-Rajs

6. al-Khafif

7. al-Hazaj

8. al-Muttakarib

9. al-Munsarih

10. al-Muktatab

11. al-Muktadarak

12. al-Madid

13. al-Mujtath

14. al-Ramel

15. al-Khabab

16. as-Saria’

Each one of the al-Bihar have a unique rhythmical pattern.[20] The al-Bihar were first codified in the 8th century by al-Khalil bin Ahmad and have changed little since. The al-Bihar are based on the length of syllables. A short syllable is a consonant followed by a short vowel. A long syllable is a vowelled letter followed by either an unvowelled consonant or a long vowel. A nunation sign at the end of a word also makes the final syllable long. In Arabic poetry each line is divided into two halves.

Below are basic scansions of the rhythmical patterns commonly found in Arabic poetry, showing long (—) and short (^) syllables. They represent pairs of half-lines and should be read from left to right. The patterns are not rigidly followed; two short syllables may be substituted for a long one.

Tawil

^ — — ^ — — ^ — — ^ — —

Kamil

^ ^ — ^ — ^ ^ — ^ — ^ ^ — ^ —

Wafir

^ — ^ ^ — ^ — ^ ^ — ^ — —

Rajs

— — ^ — — — ^ — — — ^ —

Hazaj

^ — — — ^ — — —

Basit

— — ^ — — ^ — — — ^ — — ^ —

Khafif

— ^ — — — — ^ — — ^ — —

Saria’

— — ^ — — — ^ — — ^ —

An example of Arabic poetry is the ancient Arabian poem called ‘Abu-l-‘Ata of Sind’:

Of thee did I dream,

while spears between us were quivering

and sooth of our blood full drop had drunken the tawny shafts

I know not, by heaven I swear

and true is the word I say this pang

is it love sickness or a spell from thee

If it be a spell,

then grant me grace of my love-longing

If the other the sickness be

then none is the guilt of thine.[21]

This poem, in the original Arabic, falls into the rhythmical pattern of at-Tawil, one of the al-Bihar shown above.[22]

A literary analysis on any Arabic Poem will conclude that it adheres too or is based upon the rhythmical patterns. This is supported by Louis Cheikho who collected pre-Islamic and post-Islamic poetry and concluded that all of the poems conformed and were based upon the al-Bihar.[23]

In summary the definition of Arabic poetry is that it has a,

End Rhyme
Syllabic Rhythmical Pattern (al-Bihar)

What is Arabic Prose?

Arabic Prose can be described as non-metrical speech, meaning it does not have a consistent rhythmical pattern like poetry mentioned above. Arabic prose can be further divided into two categories; saj’ which is rhymed prose and Mursal which is straight prose or what some may call ‘normal speech’.[24]

Saj’

Von Denffer in his book ‘Ulum al-Qur’an: An Introduction to the Sciences of the Qur’an’ provides the following description,

“A literary form with some emphasis on rhythm and rhyme, but distinct from poetry. Saj’ is not really as sophisticated as poetry, but has been employed by Arab poets, and is the best known of the pre-Islamic Arab prosodies. It is distinct from poetry in its lack of metre, i.e. it has not consistent rhythmical pattern, and it shares with poetry the element of rhyme, though in many cases some what irregularly employed.”[25]

Although saj’ differs from poetry in that it lacks a consistent rhythmical pattern, there is some form of pattern based upon the accent in each division of saj’.[26] Accent based rhythmical patterns are based upon stresses rather than the number of syllables.

Accent based rhythmical patterns are exhibited in Nursery Rhymes in the English Language. The following poem, ‘Baa Baa Black Sheep’, has two stresses (shown in Bold) in each line, but with a varying number of syllables,

Baa, baa, black sheep, Have you any wool? Yes sir, yes sir,

Three bags full;

One for the mas-ter, And one for the dame, And one for the lit-tle boy Who lives down the lane

Additionally saj’ is distinct from poetry and other forms of Arabic speech due to its concentrated use of rhetorical features. Rhetorical features are literary and linguistic devices intended to please or persuade, that differ from normal speech. Examples of rhetoric include sound, rhythm, ellipsis and grammatical shift (iltifaat). Devin J. Stewart in the Encyclopaedia of the Qur’an highlights this feature of saj’,

“In addition, saj’ regularly involves the concentrated use of syntactic and semantic parallelism, alliteration, paronomasia and other rhetorical figures.”[27]

In summary the definition of saj’ is that it has a,

Accentual rhythmical pattern
End rhyme
Concentrated use of rhetorical features

Mursal

Mursal can be defined as a literary form that goes on, but is continued straight throughout without any divisions, either of rhyme or of anything else. Mursal is meant as a way of expression close to the everyday spoken language, examples can be seen in speeches and prayers intended to encourage or motivate the masses.

In summary the definition of Mursal is that it has,

No rhythmical pattern
No rhyme
A resemblance to straight forward speech

3. What is the Qur’ans Literary Form?

The Qur’an has its own unique form. It cannot be described as any of the known literary forms.28 However due to similarities between saj’ and early Meccan chapters, some Western Scholars describe the Qur’an’s literary form as saj’. Angelika Neuwrith states,

“Saj’ is given up completely in the later suras where the rhyme makes use of a simple –un/-in – scheme to mark the end of rather long and syntactically complex verse….saj’ style is thus exclusively characteristic of the early suras”[29]

These scholars who categorise the Qur’an as saj’ do so on the basis that the Qur’ans uniqueness is acknowledged. To illustrate this R. A. Nicholson in his book ‘Literary History of the Arabs’ states,

“Thus, as regards its external features, the style of the Koran is modelled upon saj’, or rhymed prose…but with such freedom that it may fairly be described as original.”[30]

Although there is an attempt to try to describe the Qur’an as rhymed prose, western scholars concluded that it is a unique or an original form of saj’, thus supporting our hypothesis. To highlight this fact Bruce Lawrence states,

“Those passages from the Qur’an that approach saj’ still elude all procrustean efforts to reduce them to an alternative form of saj’.”[31]

There are three major opinions based upon modern and classical scholarship on how the Qur’an achieves this unique literary form and this unique form of saj’. The following is a summary of the opinions which will be explained in detail later in this article.

i. Unique fusion of Metrical and Non Metrical Speech

The Qur’an achieves this unique literary form by fusing metrical and non-Metrical speech. This fusion of metrical and non-metrical composition is present throughout the whole of the Qur’an and cannot be found in any Arabic text, past or present.

ii. Qur’anic Saj’

The Qur’an shares similar features with saj’, specifically in the early Meccan surahs, but it completely transcends many aspects of what defines saj’, hence western scholars describing the Qur’anic form as ‘Quranic saj’. What makes the Quran unique in this context is,

Greater tendency to mono-rhyme,
Inexact rhyme,
Greater range of saj’ phrases
Higher frequency of rhetorical features.

iii. Qur’an bound stylistic variations

Theologians and Arab Linguists such as al-Ash’ari, al-Rummani and al-Baqillani held that the Qur’an does not contain saj’ and is unique to all types of saj’. Their reasoning is that in the Qur’an, the use of language is semantically orientated and its literary structure is distinct, whereas in saj’, conformity to style is a primary objective. Furthermore the Qur’an uses literary and linguistic devices in such a way that has not been used before and achieves an unparalled communicative effect. [32] This use of language, called stylistic variation or stylistic differences, includes, but is not limited to,

Semantically driven assonance and rhyme,
Grammatical shifts (iltifaat, in Arabic),
Interrelation between sound, structure and meaning,
Choice of Words,
Unique linguistic genre,
Word order.

4. Is the Qur’an Poetry?

The Qur’an is not poetry because the totality of each surah does not conform to any of the al-Bihar and in many places exhibits inexact and irregular rhyme. Surah al-Kawthar (The Abundance) is a good example to show that it is not Arabic poetry,

Inna aAtayna kal kawthar Fasalli li rabbika wanhar Inna shani-aka huwal abtar

^_^_ ^^_ _

^^^^^^^^^

^_ _^^^^^^^

As can be seen by scanning the above surah [showing long (—) and short (^) syllables, should be read from left to right], the syllables do not correspond to any pattern similar to the al-Bihar of Arabic poetry. In fact there is no syllabic rhythmical pattern in this surah. Mohammad Khalifa in his article “The Authorship of the Qur’an” correctly concludes,

“Readers familiar with Arabic Poetry realize that it has long been distinguished by its wazn, bahr, ‘arud and qafiya – exact measures of syllabic sounds and rhymes, which have to be strictly adhered to even at the expense of grammar and shade of meaning at times. All this is categorically different from Qur’anic literary style.”[33]

5. Is the Qur’an Mursal?

The Qur’an is not straight forward speech. This is due to the use of rhyme, rhythm and unique stylistic features abundant in the Qur’anic discourse. Mursal is just normal speech that doesn’t employ any of the above features. A superficial analysis on surah al-Kawthar will conclude that it can not be described as normal speech.

Inna aAtayna kal kawthar Fasalli li rabbika wanhar Inna shani-aka huwal abtar

This chapter employs an end rhyme as can be seen by the end letters in bold and the repetition of the ‘ka’ (you) is responsible for the chapters rhythm; which differs from any of the al-Bihar. Just by highlighting this surah’s rhyme and rhythm clearly shows that it is not straight forward speech.

6. Is the Qur’an Saj’?

i. Unique fusion of Metrical and Non Metrical Speech

Some parts of the Qur’an follow the rules of poetry, that is, some verses can be described as one of the al-Bihar.[34]

However, when the totality of a Qur’anic Chapter, that contains some of these poetic verses is analysed, it is not possible to distinguish its literary form. This is reflected in the book ‘Arabic Literature to the End of the Ummayad Period’,

“The Qur’an is not verse, but it is rhythmic. The rhythm of some verses resemble the regularity of saj’…But it was recognized by Quraysh critics to belong to neither one nor the other category.”[35]

The Qur’an achieves this unique literary form by fusing metrical and non-metrical speech in such a way that the difference can not be perceived.[36] This intermingling of metrical and non-metrical composition is present throughout the whole of the Qur’an. The following examples illustrate this,

“But the righteous will be in Gardens with Springs – ‘Enter in Peace and Safety!’ – and We shall remove any bitterness from their hearts: [they will be like] brothers, sitting on couches, face to face. No weariness will ever touch them there, nor will they ever be expelled. [Prophet] tell My servants that I am the Forgiving, the Merciful, but My torment is the truly painful one. Tell them too about Abraham’s guests: when they came to him and said “Peace,” he said, ‘We are afraid of you’”[37]

When reading the original Arabic of the above verse the reader moves from metric composition to prose with out experiencing the slightest change of style or mode.[38] The same mingling of metrical and non-metrical composition can be observed in the following verse from Chapter 12 of the Qur’an.

“When she heard their malicious talk, she prepared a banquet and sent for them, giving each of them a knife. She said Joseph, ‘Come out and show yourself to them!’ and when the women saw him, they were stunned by his beauty, and cut their hands, exclaiming, ‘Great God! He cannot be mortal! He must be a precious angel!’ She said, ‘This is the one you blamed me for. I tried to seduce him and he wanted to remain chaste, but if he does not do what I command now, he will be put in prison and degraded.’”[39]

The phrase “This is the one you blamed me for” in Arabic is poetic. It has a metrical structure in which the rules of Arabic poetry are observed,[40] commenting on this feature Mitwalli al-Sharawi states,

“It is almost impossible for the listener to detect the shift from one form to the other, nor does this exquisite mingling impinge on the fluidity of expression or impair its meaning.”[41]

The Qur’an is truly unique in composition. It is neither prose nor poetry. An aspect of this unique form is achieved by fusing metrical and non-metrical composition. This view is also supported by the famous Arabic Literary scholar Arthur J. Arberry,

“For the Koran is neither prose nor poetry, but a unique fusion of both”[42]

i. Qur’anic saj’

It has already been discussed above that some scholars describe the Qur’an’s language as rhymed prose due to similarities between saj’ and early Meccan surahs. However, it is evident that these scholars still distinguish the Qur’an as a unique form of rhymed prose. Devin J. Stewart who is one of the only western scholars to discuss the literary form of the Qur’an and highlight the formal differences between saj’ and, what he calls, “Qur’anic saj’” concludes,

“The analysis undertaken in this study makes possible some preliminary observations on the formal differences between Qur’anic saj’…”[43]

The features that render the Qur’an unique, in the context of the discussion of saj’, are,

a. Greater tendency to mono-rhyme

The Qur’an differs from saj’ due to its use of mono-rhyme, meaning that it’s rhyming scheme conforms to a few rhymes rather than a selection of many rhymes. According to one analysis just over 50% of the whole Qur’an ends with the same letter[44]. This particular use of rhyme, in a text the size of the Qur’an, has not been replicated in any Arabic text. Devin J. Stewart states,

b. Inexact rhyme

The general description of saj’ is that it has an end rhyme. However the Qur’an does not conform to a constant or consistent rhyme, which reflects the work of ar-Rummani[46] who states that the Qur’ans use of language is semantically orientated and does not conform to a particular style. This is also reflected Devin J Stewart’s analysis, he states,

“The Qur’an allows inexact rhymes which are not found in later saj’”[47]

c. Greater range of saj’ phrases

The divisions of saj’ or single phrases of saj’ are called saj’aat[48]. The Qur’an differs from normal saj’ as it has a greater range of short and long saj’aat. Devin J Stewart states,

“Both in the Qur’an and in later saj’ we see that shorter saj’ is much more common, but the range in the Qur’an is greater.”[49]

d. Higher frequency of rhetorical features

The Qur’an is a ‘sea of rhetoric’. The Qur’an exhibits an unparalleled frequency of rhetorical features, surpassing any other Arabic text, classical or modern[50]. The use of rhetoric in the Quran stands out from any type of discourse[51].

A close up analysis of the Quran can highlight a wide range and frequency of rhetorical features. This is a comprehensive subject that requires further analysis, however to highlight the Qur’ans uniqueness, the following list has been provided to show that the Qur’an employs more rhetorical features than any other rhymed prose; past or present.

Analogy (For example see Qur’an 88:15–16 & 93:9-10)

Alliteration (For example see Qur’an 33:71 & 77:20)

Antiphrasis (For example see Qur’an 44:49)

Antithesis (For example see Qur’an 35:7 & 9:82)

Asyndeton (For example see Qur’an 13:2)

Assonance (For example see Qur’an 88:25-26 & 88:14-15)

Cadence – This is present in the whole Qur’an, it is a major rhetorical feature which is an inimitable feature of the Quran. The Quranic discourse uses assonance to deliver all the rhetorical features while employing the use of many phonetic features such as assimilation, nasalisation, etc. No other text has done this before, especially in such frequency.

Chiasmus (See for example Qur’an 3:27)
Epizeuxis (See for example Qur’an 94:5-6)
Equivoque (See for example Qur’an 24:43)
Homonymy (See for example Qur’an 2:14-15 & 3:54)
Hyperbole (See for example Qur’an 7:40, 33:10 & 39:71-72)
Isocolon (See for example 65:7-10)
Metaphor (See for example 19:4 & 21:18)
Metonymy (See for example 54:13 & 6:127)
Parenthesis (See for example Qur’an 7:42 & 4:73)
Polypton (See for example Qur’an 80:25-26)
Rhetorical Questions (See for example Qur’an 55:60 & 37:91-92)
Stress (See for example Qur’an 29:62 & 3:92)
Synedoche (See for example Q:90:12-13)

Saj’ has been characterised with a concentrated use of rhetorical features, due to the range and frequency of these features in the Qur’an, it differs completely from saj’.

7. Qur’an bound stylistic variations

What Does Stylistic Variations Mean?

Stylistics is a branch of linguistics which studies the features of the varieties of language within a given situation, context and meaning. Stylistics also tries to develop principles to explain the particular choices made by the author.[52]

Stylistic variation is the use of different features of language in a myriad of ways. To illustrate this take the following two Qur’anic verses which are structurally identical but stylistically distinct,

“These are the limits set by God, so do not approach them”[53]

“These are the limits set by God, so do not transgress them”[54]

The first verb “approach” occurs in the context of the following very serious prohibition in the previous, “…but do not associate with your wives while you are in spiritual retreat in the mosques.”[55]

The second verb “transgress” of the second verse entails flexibility signified by the conjunctions in the previous phrases “either” and “or”[56],

“A divorce is only permissible twice: after that, the parties should either hold Together on equitable terms, or separate with kindness.”

In the context of stylistic variation the above example can provide empirical evidence for the view that the Qur’an uses words and phrases specifically to provide an accurate and intended meaning.

How are these stylistic variations unique to the Qur’an?

“…Qur’anic ‘Arabiyya brings forth a dazzling assembly of word meaning and sound defying the conventions of both the Arabian saj’ and the literary rules of classical Arabic literature.”[57]

In her article she details how the Qur’an’s unique use of style, structure and sound places saj’ into a new literary context.[58] However the stylistic differences in the Qur’an are not limited to the elements she describes. There are many stylistic elements used in the Qur’an that are responsible for it uniqueness.[59] There are a myriad of ways the Qur’an uses language which is unknown in any Arabic discourse, some of these include,

Semantically orientated assonance and rhyme[60]
Iltifaat: Grammatical shifts[61]
Interrelation between sound, structure and meaning[62]
Unique Linguistic Genre[63]
Word order

The following examples provide linguistic and literary evidence for the Qur’an’s stylistic distinction:

Example 1: Word Order, Sound & Meaning

The following sentence is an example of how the Qur’an combines words, sounds, meaning and order to achieve its communicative goal; the result of which is sublime rhetoric64, unsurpassable eloquence and a unique literary form,

waanzala alttawrata waal-injeela min qablu hudan lilnnasi waanzala alfurqana

“He revealed the Torah and the Gospel, aforetimes, for guidance to mankind; and revealed the Criterion (i.e. the Qur’an)”[65]

An alternative order is possible:

waanzala alttawrata waal-injeela waal-furqana min qablu hudan lilnnas

This alternative arrangement has some flaws. Firstly the second arrangement lacks rhythm, compared to the Qur’anic structure, and it is phonetically inferior. Secondly, this arrangement has led to a disturbance in the meaning. This is due to the fact that the key word “anzala” (revealed) has been taken out and the final word “alfurqana” (the Criterion), whose position has a crucial semantic value, has been placed in the middle of the sentence.

The repetition of the word “anzala” and the placement of “alfurqana” are essential devices employed to enhance the communicative, psycholinguistic and rhetorical effect. The repetition of the word “anzala” is to confirm the revelation of the Criterion and that it is indeed a divine scripture while the placement of the word “alfurqana” at the end of the sentence is to confirm that the Criterion is the last and final scripture.66 Ata refers to examples like these as ‘the chemical composition of the Qur’an’[67] which indicate the delicate and balanced stylistic variation in the Qur’an.[68]

Example 2: Grammatical Shift (iltifaat)

Professor Abdel Haleem in his article ‘Grammatical Shift for Rhetorical Purposes: Iltifat and Related Features in the Qur’an’[69] brought to attention, that another inimitable feature of the Qur’an, is the extensive use of grammatical shifts. This feature is an effective rhetorical device that enhances the texts literary expression and achieves the communicative goal;[70] it is an accepted, well researched part of Arabic rhetoric. One can find references in the books of balagha (Arabic Rhetoric) by al-Athir, Suyuti and Zarkashi.[71]

These grammatical shifts include changes in person, change in number, change in addressee, change in tense, change in case marker, using a noun in place of a pronoun and many other changes.[72] An example of this complex rhetorical feature is exhibited in the following verse. It changes to talking about God, in the third person, to God Himself speaking in the first person plural of majesty:

Instead of saying “He will give him…” God in this example speaks in the plural of majesty to give His personal guarantee of reward for those who do the positive actions mentioned in the above verse. Another example of this sudden change in person and number is exhibited in the following verse:

“He it is who makes you travel by land and sea; until when you are in the ships and they sail on with them in a pleasant breeze, and they rejoice, a violent wind overtakes them and the billows surge in on them from all sides, and they become certain that they are encompassed about, they pray to Allah, being sincere to Him in obedience:

‘If Thou dost deliver us from this, we shall most certainly be of the grateful ones.’ But when He delivers them, lo! they are unjustly rebellious in the earth. O humankind! your rebellion is against your own souls – provision of this world’s life – then to Us shall be your return, so We shall inform you of what you did”[74]

Neal Robinson in his book ‘Discovering the Qur’an: A Contemporary Approach to a Veiled Text’ explains this verse in context of its rhetoric,

“At first sight it may appear hopelessly garbled, but the three consecutive pronominal shifts are all perfectly logical. The shift from the second person plural to the third person plural objectifies the addressees and enables them to see themselves as God sees them, and to recognize how ridiculous and hypocritical their behaviour is. The shift back to the second person plural marks God’s turning to admonish them. Finally the speaker’s shift from the third person singular to the first person plural expresses His majesty and power, which is appropriate in view of the allusion to the resurrection and judgment.”[75]

These shifts contribute to dynamic style of the Qur’an. It is an obvious stylistic feature and an accepted rhetorical practice. The Qur’an uses this feature in such a way that conforms to the theme of the text (semantically driven) while enhancing the impact of the message it conveys. It is not surprising that Neal Robinson concluded that the grammatical shifts used in the Qur’an,

“…are a very effective rhetorical device.”[76]

The Qur’an is the only form of Arabic prose to have used this rhetorical device in an extensive and complex manner. Abdel Haleem states,

“…it employs this feature far more extensively and in more variations than does Arabic poetry. It is, therefore, natural to find…no one seems to quote references in prose other than from the Qur’an”[77]

The Qur’an is stylistically distinct from any known form of Arabic speech. It uses linguistic and literary devices in such a way that has not been used before.

8. Conclusion

Is the Literary form based upon subjective criteria?

Some Qur’an critics often claim that the Qur’anic challenge is subjective and is based upon aesthetic criteria. This is a false accusation. The Qur’an can either be described as prose, poetry or unique. Literary forms are not based upon aesthetic criteria; they are based upon the structural features of a text. It can be clearly seen above that literary forms are defined and can be distinguished from one another.

The Qur’an is Unique

The Qur’an is a unique form of Arabic speech. The form of its language can not be described as prose or poetry. It achieves this unique literary form by,

Intermingling metrical and non-metrical speech
Transcending the defining features of saj’
Using literary and linguistic devices that render it stylistically distinct

The totality of every chapter has a special character, with its own unique form, and its unique use of literary devices. These features of the Qur’an are part of the reason of why it has not been emulated to this day.78 The highly acclaimed Professor and Arabist Hamilton Gibb states,

“.…the Meccans still demanded of him a miracle, and with remarkable boldness and self confidence Muhammad appealed as a supreme confirmation of his mission to the Koran itself. Like all Arabs they were connoisseurs of language and rhetoric. Well, then if the Koran were his own composition other men could rival it. Let them produce ten verses like it. If they could not (and it is obvious that they could not), then let them accept the Koran as an outstanding evidential miracle”[79]

There are many Muslim and Non-Muslim Scholars who testify that the Qur’an is indeed unique and inimitable. An interesting and useful analysis by Aisha Abd al-Rahman entitled “At-Tafsir al-Bayani li-Qur’an al-Karim”, which built upon the works of many Islamic Scholars throughout the decades, supports the conclusion voiced by Taha Hussein that ‘Arabic composition should be divided into three categories, prose, verse and Qur’an, saj’ forming a part of prose but the Qur’an being a category of its own.’[80]

As a result of researching Western and Muslim Scholarship it can concluded that the Qur’an is a unique literary form. Further research into the references below will consolidate the points raised in this article and will provide the correct understanding on how no one has been able to produce anything like the Qur’anic discourse. Professor Bruce Lawrence correctly asserts,

“As tangible signs, Qur’anic verse are expressive of an inexhaustible truth, they signify meaning layered with meaning, light upon light, miracle after miracle.”[81]

References

[1] Qur’an Chapter 96 Verse 1. This verse is known to have been the first revelation, there is a consensus amongst the scholars on this issue.

[2] Please see Martin Lings. Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources. 1987. Inner Traditions; for a detailed account on the life of the Prophet Muhammad and details of the first revelation.

[3] The Qur’an is undoubtedly the most influential book in Arabic literature. Non-Muslim and Muslim Scholars do not contend that the Qur’an is an authority in Arabic literature and has had an unparalleled influence. For example Chicago University Wadad Kadi and Mustansir Mir, Professor of Islamic studies at Youngstown State University state that:

“Although Arabic, as a language and a literary tradition, was quite well developed by the time of Muhammad’s prophetic activity, it was only after the emergence of Islam, with its founding scripture in Arabic, that the language reached its utmost capacity of expression, and the literature its highest point of complexity and sophistication. Indeed, it probably is no exaggeration to say that the Qur’an was one of the most conspicuous forces in the making of classical and post-classical Arabic literature.” Wadad Kadi and Mustansir Mir, Literature and the Qur’an, Encyclopedia of the Qur’an, vol. 3, pp. 213, 216. Please also see Muhammed Abdel Haleem. 1999. Understanding the Qur’an: Themes & Styles. I. B.Tauris Publishers, p. 1 –4

[4] Understanding the Qur’an: Themes & Styles, p. 1

[5] The Qur’an is a book that gives guidance on all of life’s affairs. This includes the personal and political sphere, for example the Qur’an details how treaties with other nations should be undertaken and how prisoners of war should be treated (Understanding the Qur’an: Themes & Styles, p. 66-67)

[6] K. Armstrong. 1993. A History of God: the 4,000 Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Vintage, p. 171

[7 ] Part of the Qur’an’s intellectual miracle is its literary form. God has challenged the whole of mankind to try and produce a single chapter like it (Qur’an 2:23). This challenge, which has remained unchallenged, is what captivated the minds of the Arabs at the time of revelation. They rationally assessed that if an Arab cannot challenge the Qur’an and a Non-Arab could not, then the only ‘entity’ that could have possibly produced the Qur’an is the Creator. Margoliouth explains the results of this intellectual revival,

“The Koran [sic] admittedly occupies an important position among the great religious books of the world. Though the youngest of the epoch-making works belonging to this class of literature, it yields to hardly any in the wonderful effect which it has produced on large masses of men. It has created an all but new phase of human thought and a fresh type of character. It first transformed a number of heterogeneous desert tribes of the Arabian peninsula into a nation of heroes, and then proceeded to create the vast politico-religious organizations of the Muhammadan world which are one of the great forces with which Europe and the East have to reckon today.” G. Margoliouth. 1977. Introduction to J.M. Rodwell’s, The Koran. Everyman’s Library, p. vii

[8] To understand the functions and objectives of this state, and its impact on the modern world please see the very informative sitewww.caliphate.eu

[9] Qur’an chapter 2 verse 23

[10] Qur’an chapter 52 verses 33-34

[11] See Tafsir Ibn Kathir; Tafsir al-Qurtubi; Tafsir al-Jalalayn and Ma’riful Qur’an by Mufti Mualana Shafi.

[12] Please see The Encyclopedia Of Islam, 1971, Volume 3, E J Brill, Leiden, p. 1019; A F L Beeston, T M Johnstone, R B Serjeant and G R Smith (Ed.), Arabic Literature To The End Of The Ummayyad Period, 1983, Cambridge University Press, p. 212 & 127-128; Gustave E Von Grunebaum, A Tenth-Century Document Of Arabic Literary Theory and Criticism, 1950, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, p. xiv; Abdul Aleem, I’jaz ul Qur’an, 1933, Islamic Culture, Volume VII, Hyderabad Deccan, p. 221 & 232; Ignaz Goldziher, Ed. S M Stern, Muslim Studies (Muhammedanische Studien) II, 1971, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London, pp. 363.

[13] See Stephen S. Bilynskyj, ‘God, Nature, and the Concept of Miracle’ (Ph.D. Diss.: Notre Dame, 1982) 10-42 and The Problem of Miracles: A Historical and Philosophical Perspective. Dr. William Lane Craig. Available online.

[14] This will be discussed in detail in a forthcoming article. Additionally this argument depends on the understanding that a supernatural entity actually exists. The existence of God, or the cause of the universe, is a prerequisite to this discussion. Please see William Lane Craig. The Kalam Cosmological Argument. Wiqpf and Stock Publishers; Alister McGrath. The Dawkins Delusion. SPCK; Alister McGrath. The Twilight of Atheism. Rider; William Lane Craig and Walter Sinnot-Armstrong. God: A Debate Between a Christian and an Atheist. Oxford University Press and Keith Ward. God, Chance and Necessity. One World.

[15] See ‘Abd al-Jabbar. I’jaz al-Qur’an. Cairo. 1960, p. 224; Ali Ibn Isa al-Rummani. Thalath Rasa’il Ijaz al-Qur’an. Ed. M. Khalaf Allah & M. Sallam, Cairo. 1956, p. 97-98; Hamd Ibn Muhammad al-Khatibi. Al-Bayan fi I’jaz al-Qur’an. Ed. Dr ‘Abd al- Alim, Muslim University, Aligarh, India. 1953, p. 36; Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Tayyib Baqillani. Al-I’jaz al-Qur’an. Ed. A. Saqr, Dar al-Ma’arif, Eqypt pp 86-89; A’isha ‘Abd Ar-Rahman Bint ash-Shati’. At-Tafsir al-Bayani li-Qur’an al-Karim, 3rd ed. Cairo,1968; Arthur J Arberry. 1998. The Koran. Oxford University Press, p. x; Bruce Lawrence. Journal of Qur’anic Studies. Vol VII, Issue I 2005. Approximating Saj’ in English Renditions of the Qur’an: A Close Reading of Suran 93 (al-Duha) and the basmala p. 64.

[16] The influential Egyptian Litterateur born in 1889 and died in 1973.

[17] Lecture entitled “Prose in the second and third centuries after the Hijra” delivered at the Geographical Society in Cairo 1930. Dar al Ma-arif.

[18] Metrical speech is a form of speech that employs a strict rhythmical pattern, that is, it follows a type of poetic metre.

[19] Sir Charles J. Lyall. 1930. Translations of Ancient Arabian Poetry. Columbia University Press, p. xlv

[20] Please see Sir Charles J. Lyall. Translations of Ancient Arabian Poetry, p. xlv-lii and William Wright. 1955 (1898). A Grammar of the Arabic Language, Vol II, part 4. Cambridge University Press, p. 350-390 for more information on the poetic metres.

[21] Sir Charles J. Lyall. Translations of Ancient Arabian Poetry, p 13.

[22] Ibid

[23] See Louis Cheikho, Shu’ara’ ‘al-Nasraniyah, 1890-1891, Beirut.

[24] Devin J Stewart. Saj’ in the Qur’an: Prosody and Structure, in The Koran: Critical Concepts in Islamic Studies. Edited by

Colin Turner, Vol. II.

[25] A. Von Denffer. 2003 (Revised Ed. 1994). ‘Ulum al-Qur’an: An Introduction to the Sciences of the Qur’an. The Islamic

Foundation, p. 75

[26] Devin J Stewart. Saj’ in the Qur’an: Prosody and Structure.

[27] Stewart, Devin J. “Rhymed Prose”. Encyclopaedia of the Qur’an. General Editor: Jane Dammen McAuliffe, Georgetown

University, Washington DC. Brill, 2008

[28] See also Professor Abd al-Rahman Ali Muhammad Ibrahim. The Literary Structure of the Qur’anic Verse. Qur’anic Arabic

Foundation. 2005.

[29] Neuwrith, Angelika. “Rhetoric and the Qur’an”. Encyclopaedia of the Qur’an. General Editor: Jane Dammen McAuliffe, Georgetown University, Washington DC. Brill, 2008.

[30] R. A. Nicholson. 1930. Literary History of the Arabs. Cambridge University Press, p. 159

[31] Bruce Lawrence. Journal of Qur’anic Studies. Vol VII, Issue I 2005. Approximating Saj’ in English Renditions of the Qur’an: A Close Reading of Suran 93 (al-Duha) and the basmala p. 64

[32] See ‘Abd al-Jabbar. I’jaz al-Qur’an. Cairo. 1960, p. 224; Ali Ibn Isa al-Rummani. Thalath Rasa’il Ijaz al-Qur’an. Ed. M. Khalaf Allah & M. Sallam, Cairo. 1956, p. 97-98; Hamd Ibn Muhammad al-Khatibi. Al-Bayan fi I’jaz al-Qur’an. Ed. Dr ‘Abd al-Alim, Muslim University, Aligarh, India. 1953, p. 36; Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Tayyib Baqillani. Al-I’jaz al-Qur’an. Ed. A. Saqr, Dar al-Ma’arif, Eqypt pp 86-89; A’isha ‘Abd Ar-Rahman Bint ash-Shati’. At-Tafsir al-Bayani li-Qur’an al-Karim, 3rd ed. Cairo, 1968.

[33] Mohammad Khalifa. The Authorship of the Qur’an in The Koran: Critical Concepts in Islamic Studies. Edited by Colin Turner, Vol. I, p.129

[34] Kristina Nelson. 1985 (2nd Print 2002). The Art of Reciting the Qur’an. The American University in Cairo Press, p. 10

“Although some of the lines of the Qur’an may be scanned according to the Classical Arabic metres*, these are not as characteristic of Qur’anic syllabic rhythmic patterns as are the abrupt or progressive shifts in rhythmic patterns and length of line, and the shifts between regular and irregular patterns.” * See al-Sa’id (1997: 324 – 25) and al-Suyuti (1910: I/96 – 105) for a list of some of these lines.

[35] A F L Beeston, T M Johnstone, R B Serjeant and G R Smith (Editors), Arabic Literature To The End Of The Ummayad Period, 1983, Cambridge University Press, p. 34.

[36] Mitwalli al-Sharawi, The Miracles of the Qur’an. Dar ul Taqwa, p. 31

[37] Qur’an Chapter 15 Verses 45-52

[38] The Miracles of the Qur’an, p. 31

[39] Qur’an Chapter 12 Verses 31-35

[40] The Miracles of the Qur’an, p. 31

[41] Ibid, p. 32

[42] Arthur J Arberry. 1998. The Koran. Oxford University Press, p. x

[43] Devin J Stewart. Saj’ in the Qur’an: Prosody and Structure, p.102

[44] Dr. Adel M. A. Abbas, Anne P. Fretwell, Science Miracles, No Sticks or Snakes (Beltsville, Maryland, USA: Amana

Publications: 2000)

[45] Devin J Stewart. Saj’ in the Qur’an: Prosody and Structure, p.102

[46] Ali Ibn Isa al-Rummani. Thalath Rasa’il Ijaz al-Qur’an. Ed. M. Khalaf Allah & M. Sallam, Cairo. 1956, p. 97-98

[47] Ibid

[48] Ibid p. 84

[49] Ibid p. 90

[50] Please see H, Abdul-Raof. 2003. Exploring the Qur’an. Al-Maktoum Institute Academic Press, p. 265-398; H. Abdul-Raof. 2000. Qur’an Translation: Discourse,Texture and Exegesis. Curzon Press, p 95-137; F Esack. 1993. Qur’anic Hermeneutics: Problems and Prospects. The Muslim World, Vol. 83, No. 2. p. 126 -128.

[51] Ibid.

[52] Hussein Abdul-Raof. Qur’anic Stylistics: A Linguistic Analysis. Lincolm Europa. 2004, p. 9.

[53] Qur’an Chapter 2 Verse 187

[54] Qur’an Chapter 2 Verse 229

[55] Qur’an Chapter 2 Verse 187

[56] Hussein Abdul-Raof. Qur’anic Stylistics: A Linguistic Analysis, p 91-92

[57] S. M. Hajjaji-Jarrah. 2000. The Enchantment of Reading: Sound, Meaning, and Expression in Surat Al-Adiyat. Curzon Press, p. 229

[58] Ibid, p. 228

[59] See Hussein Abdul-Raof. Qur’anic Stylistics: A Linguistic Analysis. Lincolm Europa. 2004; The Qur’an: An Encyclopeadia. Edited by Oliver Leaman. “Qur’anic Style”. Routledge; and Hamza Andreas Tzortzis, Three Lines that Changed the World: The Inimitability of the Surah al-Kawtar (available from www.theinimitablequran.co m) for a detailed analysis.

[60] See al-Hassan al-‘Askari (ed. Mufid Qamima). 1981. Kitab al-Sina-‘atayn: al-Kitaba wa ‘l-Shi’r. Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyya, p. 285

[61] Muhammed Abdel Haleem. 1999. Understanding the Qur’an: Themes & Styles. I. B.Tauris Publishers, p. 184-210 and Neal and Neal Robinson. 1996. Discovering The Qur’an: A Contemporary Approach To A Veiled Text. SCM Press Ltd., p. 245-252

[62] Sayyid Qutb. 1966. al-Taswir al-Fanni fi al-Qur’an. Cairo: Dar al-Ma’arif, Sayyid Qutb. 1966. Mashahid al-Qiyama fi ‘l- Qur’an. Cairo: Dar al-Ma’arif., Michael Sells. 1991. Sound Spirit and Gender in Surat al-Qadr. Journal of the American Oriental Society 111, 2 p. 239-259, M. Sells. Sound and Meaning in Surat Al- Qariah in Arabica Vol 40, and M. Sells. 2000. A Literary Approach to the Hymnic Surahs of the Qur’an: Spirit, Gender and Aural Intertextuality. Curzon Press, p. 3-25.

[63] Hamza Andreas Tzortzis. The Unique Genre of the Qur’an. Can be accessed from www.theinimitablequran.co m.

[64] For more information on the Rhetorical Features in the Qur’anic discourse see H, Abdul-Raof. 2003. Exploring the Qur’an. Al-Maktoum Institute Academic Press, p. 265-398; H. Abdul-Raof. 2000. Qur’an Translation: Discourse,Texture and Exegesis. Curzon Press, p 95-137; F Esack. 1993. Qur’anic Hermeneutics: Problems and Prospects. The Muslim World, Vol. 83, No. 2. p. 126 -128.

[65] Qur’an Chapter 3 verses 3-4

[66] The Linguistic Architecture of the Qur’an. Hussein Abdul-Raof. Journal of Qur’anic Studies. Vol. II, Issue II, 2000, p. 39

[67] ’Abd al-Qadir Ahmad ‘Ata, ‘Wujuh i’jaz al-Qur’an, in Mahmud ibn Hamza al-Karmani (ed.), Asrar al-tikrar fi’l-Qur’an (Cairo: Dar al-I’tisam, 1977), p. 243-63

[68] See also al-Suyuti, Abu ‘l-Fadl Jalal al-Din, Mu’tarak al-aqran fi i’jaz al-Qur’an (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-’Ilmiyya, 1988), Vol. 1 p 128ff

[69] Muhammed Abdel Haleem. 1999. Understanding the Qur’an: Themes & Styles. I. B.Tauris Publishers, p. 184-210

[70] Ibid. Please see H, Abdul-Raof. 2003. Exploring the Qur’an. Al-Maktoum Institute Academic Press and H. Abdul-Raof. 2000. Qur’an Translation: Discourse, Texture and Exegesis. Curzon Press.

[71] Muhammed Abdel Haleem. 1999. Understanding the Qur’an: Themes & Styles, p. 184-210

[72] Ibid.

[73] Qur’an Chapter 4 verse 114

[74] Qur’an Chapter 10 verse 22

[75] Neal Robinson. 2004. Discovering the Qur’an: A Contemporary Approach to a Veiled Text. Georgetown University Press.

[76] Ibid.

[77] Muhammed Abdel Haleem. 1999. Understanding the Qur’an: Themes & Styles, p. 184-210

[78] Please see The Encyclopedia Of Islam, 1971, Volume 3, E J Brill, Leiden, p. 1019; A F L Beeston, T M Johnstone, R B Serjeant and G R Smith (Ed.), Arabic Literature To The End Of The Ummayyad Period, 1983, Cambridge University Press, p.212 & 127-128; Gustave E Von Grunebaum, A Tenth-Century Document Of Arabic Literary Theory and Criticism, 1950, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, p. xiv; Abdul Aleem, I’jaz ul Qur’an, 1933, Islamic Culture, Volume VII, Hyderabad Deccan, p. 221 & 232; Ignaz Goldziher, Ed. S M Stern, Muslim Studies (Muhammedanische Studien) II, 1971, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London, pp. 363.

[79] H. A. R. Gibb. 1980. Islam: A Historical Survey. Oxford University Press, p. 28

[80] Saj’ in English Renditions of the Qur’an: A Close Reading of Surah 93 (al-Duha) and the basmala p. 64

[81] Bruce Lawrence. The Qur’an: A Biography. Atlantic Books, p 8.

Courtesy : Sheikh Hamza Andreas Tzortzis

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Also see the Remarkable Ring Composition in the Quran http://neurotherapy-of-christian-brain.blogspot.ae/2013/06/miracles-of-prophets-of-allah-peace-and.html or here http://manyprophetsonemessage.com/category/islam/quran/linguistics/

Saturday, May 12, 2012

Allah (God Allmighty)'s Word i.e. The Quran's Linguistic Challenge (Part1)

THE QURAN'S CHALLENGE:

A LITERARY & LINGUISTIC MIRACLE

The Quran's Unique Literary Form

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